I 







Cfass 

Book 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 






"things that abbress the ear are lost anb bic in one short hour, 
iJBut that which strikes the epe lives long upon the minb." 




£7; 

■z 



Copyright 1908 
Hanson-Bellows Company 

Copyright 1909 
Roauh-Fowler Publishing Company 

Copyright 1915 
Hanson-Bellows Company 



DEC 20 1915 

©CI.A4200H 

1 ; - 



This Volume Contains 



PART ONE 

Graphic History 



PART TWO 

Manual of Methods 



PART THREE 

Supplement 



Foreword 

This work is not designed to supplant the regular texts 
on history, but to supplement all of them and to present 
historical facts in the best possible way. 

It correlates the important events of our country's 
history in such a way as to fix them definitely in the mind. 

It associates ideas, so that in remembering one we recall 
others. 

It classifies and organizes historical facts, bringing out 
the logical relations, so that the information becomes 
significant and harmonious. 

It illustrates epochs and events, forming a fixed mental 
picture, and makes the eye assist the memory. 

This association of ideas is memory's strongest sup- 
port; this illustrative teaching is in keeping with the spirit 
of the times; this correlative work is in accord with modern 
methods. 

History studied in this manner becomes an inspiration 
to the pupils, and in contrast to the text-taught pupils 
they will readily remember the interesting facts of our 
nation's history and can locate definitely all important 
events of our country's progress. 

The hundreds of questions suggested by the illustrations 
will keep the pupils busy and the answers will form a basis 
for a thorough understanding of the subject. 

The pen sketch is not supposed to contain the information 
to answer the questions so much as to suggest the questions 
and supply an easy means for memorizing the answer. 



CONTENTS 

Preview 



Discoveries and Explorations 



Mound Builders 

Norsemen 

American Indians 

Columbus 

Spanish Explorations 



French Explorations 
English Explorations 
Dutch Explorations 
Review of Explorations 
Questions and Exercises 



Thirteen Colonies 



Virginia 
Massachusetts 
New York 
New Hampshire 
Maryland 
Connecticut 
Rhode Island 
Delaware 
North Carolina 



New Jersey 
South Carolina 
Pennsylvania 
Georgia 

Colonial Customs 
Colonial Government 
Summary and Review 
Tabulated Review 
Questions and Outlines 



Intercolonial Wars 



King William's 
Queen Anne's 
King George's 



French and Indian 
Review and Exercises 



Revolution 



Causes 

First Year— 1775 
Second Year— 1776 
Third Year— 1777 
Fourth Year— 1778 
Fifth Year— 1779 



Sixth Year— 1780 
Seventh Year— 1781 
Leading Events 
Results 
Exercises 



The Administrations 



George Washington 

Crayon Portrait 
John Adams 
Thomas Jefferson 
James Madison 
War of 1812 

First Year— 1812 
Second Year— 1813 
Third Year— 1814 
Fourth Year— 1815 
Pioneer Days 

James Monroe 

John Quincy Adams 

Andrew Jackson 

Martin Van Buren 

William Henry Harrison 

John Tyler 

James K. Polk 
Mexican War 
The Mexican War 
The Three Campaigns 

Zachary Taylor 

Millard Fillmore 

Franklin Pierce 

James Buchanan 



Abraham Lincoln 

Civil War 

First Year— 1861 
Second Year— 1862 
Third Year— 1863 
Fourth Year— 1864 
Fifth Year— 1865 

Geography Approximate 

The Three Decisive Battle.: 

Tree Review 

Confederate States 

Review Map 

Results 

Robert E. Lee 

Ulysses S. Grant 

Andrew Johnson 

Ulysses S. Grant 

Rutherford Hayes 

James Garfield 

Chester A. Arthur 

Grover Cleveland 

Benjamin Harrison 

Grover Cleveland 

Wm. McKinley 
War with Spain 
Philippine Insurrection 

Theodore Roosevelt 



Miscellaneous 



Acquisition of Territory 

Political Parties 

Modes of Travel 

Habitations 

Problems 

Trusts, Combines, Rebates 

Historical Exercises 

The Frozen North 

Inventions 

Panama Canal 

Steps of Progress 



Development of American Flag 

United States Review 

The Outlook 

American Literature 

Eminent Americans 

Fighting Bob 

Slavery in the United States 

Aerial Navigation 

Ten Large Cities 

Industrial Map 

Lowly Beginnings of Great Men 



First Era 



The Three Great Eras 

Second Era Third Era 



Additional Exercises 
Questions 



Ancient History, Vol. 1 
Ancient History, Vol II 



M. and M. History, Vol. I 
M. and M. History, Vol. II 



REVIEW 

OF 

AMERICAN 
PROGRESS 






t 15 only a few hundred =5 
years since the civilized 
world'.fjrstknew of aiierica.. \ 
The prehistoric race inhabit-^ 
ingth15 country 15 desisted the"i10\lhd -~ 
builder5* and' our interrogation point is ajv 
mpressive lesson that the history £ 
of this people is simply a questio) 

WITH US. 

For hundreds of years AFTER- 
WARDS THE ONLY PEOPLE IN AMERICA WERE 
THE INDIANA AND WE Hf\VE SUCCESTED 
r\ORE IN THE TWO PAGES THAN YOU 
WILL BE ABLE TO DEVELOP FROM ALL ~ y*T> 
YOUR TEXTS OH THE SUBJECT 

IN THIS EFFECTIVE WAY WE 
HAVE TREATED THE NORSEMEN, 
COLUnBU5,AND THE SEVERAL 
NATJ0N5 PROMINENT IN THE- 
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF OUR 
COUNTRY. 



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Columbus 

"He (the Most High) gave to thee (Columbus) the keys of those gates of the 
Ocean . . which were fast closed with such mighty chains." — Dream of Columbus, 
narrated in his letter to the King and Queen of Spain, 1503. 

Where was Columbus born? When? 

What do you know of his parentage? 

To what studies did he give special attention? 

To what kings did Columbus offer his plans? 

What king deceived him? Why? 

On what day of the month did Columbus sail ? 

In what month was land first seen? 

How long does it take to cross the Atlantic now? 

What kind of vessels had Columbus? 

Upon what island did he land ? 

What were the natives like? 

How many subsequent voyages did he make to America? 

When did he die and where was he buried? 

Written Exercise 

Write a short sketch of the life of Columbus and make prominent 
the following points: 

Early life. 

What led him to think that the earth was round? 

His reason for desiring to discover new land. 

Visit to the king of Portugal. 

His treatment at the Spanish court. 

The number and sizes of the ships in which he sailed. 

Incidents of the voyage. 

Appearance of the people and country he found. 

His treatment by Ferdinand 

Closing years of his life. 

Your opinion of his character and ability. 
Illustrate your essay with a sketch of the boy Columbus, a pic-> 
ture of one of the ships in which he sailed, the banner of the expedi 
tion and a map showing his route across the sea. 



Spanish Explorations 

What must each nation do to make good its claim to 
new territory? 

What cause drew the Spaniards southward? 

What difference would it probably have made had they 
gone northward? 

What was the main motive of the Spaniards? Prove. 

What was the extent and limit of their conquests? 

Draw a line across the map of North America through 
the most northerly point reached by Spain. 

Compare the Spanish and English colonies: 

(a) In treatment of the Indians. 

(b) In general results. 

Why did Balboa wade into the ocean? 

Which discoverer drove hogs before him while traveling? 

Exercise 

Review your study by affixing important events to the following 
dates: 

1492 1513 1519 1528 

1493 1517 1520 1540 
1498 1518 1521 1542 
1512 

Historical Imagination 

Pupils should be encouraged to develop their power of imagina- 
tion by creating mental pictures of past events. These pictures 
when not too complex may be reproduced on the blackboard or in 
written work. In thinking of De Leon's discovery one can picture 
the land of flowers and understand why Florida was so named. A 
fountain is easily illustrated and will serve to show the pupils how 
an absurd belief may affect the course of history. 

In a mental picture of the burial of De Soto we must have a 
river, a boat, some Spaniards, the sorrowful appearance of the people, 
the moon in the sky, A priest and cross are appropriate. In this 
manner the child is impressed with "the first requiems that were 
ever heard on the waters of the Mississippi." 

Such exercises will help the student to determine the value of 
historical pictures and how they originate. 

Reference. — The topical outline, page 450, Vol. Ill, U. S., presents not only 
the chronological list, but also a subdivision into groups according to nationality. 



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Exploration 

Review the expeditions of the explorers and note: 
The dates of each expedition. 
The territory explored. 
The permanent results. 
Trace these expeditions on the map of North America. 
Locate the boundaries of New France. 
The life of each explorer should be outlined by the 
pupil as fully as the teacher may deem wise; the form given 
in the pen sketch for Columbus is suggestive. 

Topics for Written Exercise 

De Soto's Explorations. 

The Dutch Fur Trade. 

La Salle's Journey Down the Mississippi River. 

The Northwest Passage. 

The Conquest of Mexico. 

Unsuccessful Attempts at Colonization. 

Conflicting Claims 

Spain f What territory? 

France ! Based on what discovery? 

England ] How protected? 

Holland I How settled? 



NATION 


DATE 


TERRITORY 


EXPLORER 


English 
Spanish 

Dutch 
French 


1497-8 

1512 

1513 

1519-21 

1609 

1682 


Labrador to Florida 

Florida 

Pacific 

Mexico 

Delaware River to Cape Cod 

Territory drained by Mississippi River 


Cabots 
De Leon 
Balboa 
Cortez 
Hudson 
La Salle 



Exercises 

Outline maps should be used and the route of each explorer 
carefully traced. The claims of each nation should be represented 
in colors upon the map, giving name of explorer and date of explora- 
tion. As the pupils advance in the text let them mark on their maps 
the places discovered, the settlements, and other developments; the 
series of maps prepared will be valuable for study and reference. 




■ / THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 





he tmmmnFjHE TWrTEEIi COLO- 
NIES FORMS R DliTINCT PERIOD IN OUR HIS- \ 
TORY AND h LITTLE CRRE IN PORTWM's 
RM CLASSIFYING THE IflPORTRNTEYENTS OFEflCH - 
WLL RVOUATE THEWmiHMHff WRY. /fS ^ 
TO FORM AN/NTEGRRL PART OF ONE'S ft 
EDUCATION. ■f 

A HERE -CASUAL GLANCE RT THE } 
SKETCH OF NEWHfWP5HIRE WLL 111- ^ 
PRESS QNE WITH THE FACT THAT THE '*/ 
COLONY WHS UNITED WITH /1RSS- Z 
RCHUSETTb FOR PROTECTION /lGfl/NST.% 
THE INDIANS. J 

IN LIKE HANNER WE ACQUIRE ft |f 
PERMANENT FIND CLASSIFIED KNOWL- 
EDGE OF HUNDREDS OF OTHER IMPORTANT ' 
HISTORICAL FACT5. 




Virginia Colony 

Why was Virginia so called? 

By what company was Virginia first settled? 

Who was the leading spirit in the early settlement of 
Virginia ? 

What proportion of the people died during the starving 
time? 

Is the story of Pocahontas saving Captain Smith now 
accepted as true? 

What noted man was a descendant of Pocahontas? 

What did the Indians of Jamestown plant in order to 
grow ammunition? 

How many negroes were sold at first at Jamestown? 

Did the early settlers find gold in Jamestown? Are 
the ruins of Jamestown now visible? 

What four important events occurred in 1619? 

How many years between the two Indian massacres? 

What governor said, "I thank God that there are no 
free schools and printing presses in America"? 

What four important navigation acts are mentioned? 
Give three reasons why England enacted such laws. What 
three results are enumerated? 

History and Literature 

Advanced history classes should have their study of this subject 
supplemented with chapters from Seeley's Expansion of England 
and Smith's Wealth of Nations. 

Interest the pupils by reading from Eggleston's Pocahontas and 
Powhatan. Show how England sent out wives to the colonies in 
1620, by reading from Miss Johnston's To Have and To Hold; how 
"white apprentices" were sent under indentures to Virginia, as ex- 
plained in Miss Rayner's Free to Serve. Read Cook's Stories of the 
Old Dominion and selections from Goodwin's White Aprons, describing 
Bacon's Rebellion. 

Such exercises will acquaint pupils with our best literature and 
impress the student with the fact that historical information is the 
basis for much of our literary productions. 




-37b- 



Massachusetts Colony 

Why was the "Cradle of Liberty" so styled? 

What city is known as the "Hub of the Universe"? 

Why was Boston styled "The Athens of America"? 

For what was the Boston Elm noted? 

What was the sobriquet of Faneuil Hall? 

Name two causes of Salem witchcraft persecution. 
Three events. Two results. 

What was some of the early money in Massachusetts i 5 

What was the nature of the Government established 
by the Pilgrim Fathers? 

In what ship did they come to America? What was 
the number of emigrants? 

How many houses were erected by them? 

What now marks the place where the Pilgrims landed? 

Why were the persons who came over in the Mayflower 
styled Pilgrims? 

Who were among the leaders of the Pilgrims? Who 
the first governors? What do you know of their growth? 
Their sufferings? Their independence? 

What inscription is upon the original Plymouth Rock ? 

Who is the author of the poem written in honor of the 
landing of the Pilgrim Fathers? 

Exercises 
Read all the books at your command on the Salem witchcraft, 
then tell the story in a lively manner. 

What learned man wrote a book on witchcraft? 

Boston 

Write an account of Boston, giving — 
The meaning of the name. 
Early history. 
Public buildings. 

Its part in the events which led to American independence. 
Historical topics associated with it. 
Suggestion. — Illustrate your essay with a hub, naming important facts on each 
radiating spoke, Boston Elm, Cradle of Liberty, Bunker Hill Monument and other 
features of interest. 



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Colonies 

Population — 

How did the colonies rank as to population? 

Which colony had the greatest population? 
Industries — 

First printing press. 

First newspaper. 

First college. 

Free schools. 
Social conditions — 

Slavery. 

Manners and customs. 

Great men of the period. 
Compare each colony in — 

The treatment of the Indians. 

The devotion to learning. 

The missionary spirit. 

The progress toward self-government. 

The toleration of religions. 

The rapidity and greatness of development. 

Exercises 

To begin with, it is necessary to study the colonies separately 
and to take them up in the order of their settlement. After care- 
fully studying them separately, comparative lessons become possible 
and profitable. 

Take Massachusetts as a type of New England colonies. 

Contrast Virginia and Massachusetts. 

In what way did Pennsylvania differ from both? 

Give the characteristic Dutch coloring to New York. 

Study their mutual interests. 

The following people emigrated to America: 

Pilgrims Presbyterians Churchmen 

Puritans Huguenots of Holland 

Lutherans Methodists Churchmen 

Catholics Jesuits of England 

Why did they leave the mother country? 
• From what country did they come and in what colonies did they 
settle? 




HIS PEP/OP OF HISTORY 15 CONFUSING TO §g 
THE ORDINARY PUPIL . FACTS /IRE OH- Jg 
L Y GRASPED IN GENERAL . ^ 

WE HOP£ THAT THIS SFMSNAY ENABLE cC 
THE STUDENT TO ACQU/Re/dEF/NITE /WFORlfe 
AT/ON. 

OVR SKETCHES ARE CmPACTERIST/C 

AND DESIGNED TO PQINTEDLMBRM OUT THE 
FACTS. MN THE STuMpH WHICH THE~ 
ARROW HOLDS THE M/IEdF^mCH WAR IS 
SUGGESTIVE OF INDIAN WRREjHm^HE£OR 
DEP, OF THE SERIES IS UNIQUE AHDJ&US- 
TRHTIVE FIND THE PDP/ljp SURE 
TO CRTCP THE. SPIRIT W THE 
TIMES YTDID TO ENTE0iWTO 
THE STUDY WlT^fTflSSUREO 
SUCCESS. 





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Intercolonial Wars 



"They Run! They Run!" 

The series of wars that ended with the Peace of Paris 
was the turning point in American history. 

It gave England more territory than she could control. 

It schooled the colonists in a degree of freedom which deter- 
mined the nationality of the continent. 

It created a bond of union among them which assured a 
representative form of government. 

It skilled them in the art of war, enabling them to main- 
tain their rights. 

It determined the dominating religion. 

It practically ended Indian depredations. 

It laid the foundation of a national life, which resulted in 
the nearest approach to an ideal republic. 









REVIEW 




NAME 


CAUSE 


DURATION 


EVENTS 


TREATY AND RESULTS 


King 


War be- 


16S9- 


-1697 


Indian ravages in 


Treaty of Ryswick 


William 


tween Eng- 






N. V. 


Territory un- 




land and 






Phipps' expeditions 


changed 




France on 






Port R o y a i 






account of 






captured 






James II 










Queen Anne 


To place 


1702- 


-1713 


Deerfield mas- 


Treaty of Utrecht 




James' son 






sacre 


England gained 




on throne 






English capture Pt. 


Acadia and con- 




of England 






Royal 
Florida settlements 
destroyed 


trol of Newfound- 
land fisheries 


King George 


Trouble in 


1744- 


-1748 


Pepperell's expedi- 


Treaty of Aix-la- 




Europe 






tion 
Capture of Louis- 
burg 


Chapelle. Louis- 
burg and Cape 
Breton restored to 
France 


French and 


Overlapping 


1754- 


-1763 


Braddock's defeat 


Peace of Paris 


Indian 


claims 






Deportation 
of Acadians 

Capture of Fort 
Duquesne 

Capture of Louis- 
burg 

Capture of Crown 
Point 

Ticonderoga and 
Niagara 

Capture of Quebec 


France surrenders 
to England all her 
possessions east of 
the Mississippi and 
to Spain New Or- 
leans and all her 
possessions west of 
the Mississippi 


* 








and Montreal 








The Revolution 



W THE BOMER- IN THIS MIES E/1- 1 
WlESWMLmmOFTHE I 

sms tsmwrnm the i/i- \ 
ainws of wrm refunds one of the \ 

Bun dim of the fiinute hen. 
Next to emtimthese scenes is rnwm 
mmiimswmcwrmwM- i 
cessful tercher crn inspire hi 'i 'cuss with 

the p/itri0tisi10ftiie revolutionary heroes 
to whom we owourbtrthrkhitto - 



li-EXIHGTON 

I-NDLPENDMCE- 

B-UR60YNE--- 

Z-WCURVON-- 

R-ETREXT- 

T-RERSON-- 

Y-ORKTOWNr 



■1115. 
1176 
■1777 
J77S 
/779 
II BO 
178/ 




Outline of 1775 

Battle of Lexington, April 19 — 

Show how the colonists were prepared. 

Object of English. 

Importance of the skirmishes. 

Explain " Fired the shot heard 'round the world". 

Concord • • • • Emerson 

Battle of Lexington Whittier 

Paul Revere 's Ride Longfellow 

Colonists assembled around Boston. 
Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — 

Object. 

Results. 
Second Continental Congress — 

A final petition was sent to the king. 

Washington was chosen commander-in-chief. 

Voted to raise an army of 20,000 men. 

It formed the united colonies and assumed authority 
over them. 

It voted to issue $2,000,000 paper money. 

Was independence thought of? 
Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17— 

Was the battle important? Why? 

Compare reports made by British and Americans. 

Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Holmes 

Washington assumed command July 2. 
The Mecklenburg Declaration. 
The invasion of Canada. 

Attack on Quebec. 
The postal system was perfected. 
What had been accomplished by the close of the year? 

Note — Campaigns should be traced in different colors upon an outlined map 
and the location of important battles shown. 




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Revolution 

Battles 

American Victories 
British Victories 
Prominent Men 
Soldiers 

American 
British 
Statesmen 
American 
1 British 
Chronological Table of Events 

Supplementary Reading 

A very few supplementary selections are suggested throughout 
this work that the teacher and student may be impressed with the 
richness, dramatic interest and color to historical subjects when lit- 
erature is interwoven. The school histories furnish but a mere outline 
at best and the teacher adhering soleiy to the text cannot hope to 
inspire her pupils. 

The Song of Marion's Men Bryant 

True to the Old Flag Henty 

The Swamp Fox Simms 

Hugh Wynne Mitchell 

Paul Revere's Ride Longfellow 

Septimius Felton Hawthorne 

The Pilot (Paul Jones is hero) Cooper 

The Spy (Grandmother's Story of the Battle of 

Bunker Hill) Cooper 

Topics for Special Study 

The Declaration of Independence 
Aid from France 
The Stars and Stripes 
The Backwoods Man as a Type 
The Cradle of Liberty 
"Greene's Superb Strategy" 
Financiers of the Revolution 
Foreigners in the American Army 
Literature of the Revolution 
The Loyalist 





^liJ^^fciil 



WE RDMINISTRATIONS 



HE EVENTS OF THE TWENTY' 
ty& SIX ADMIN IS TRHTIONS ARE . 
HERE POR TRftYED IN S UCH ft W^Wk 
AS TO Fit THEM PEAHIAHENTLY IN 

the mind of the stu pent. 

Pupil 1 ) using these outlines cannot 
pass our this mpwtmt period of 
our history without a general 

KNOWLEDGE OF THE EVENTS WHICH || 
HAVE MADE US WE FOREMOST MM0 
NATIONS MP M IDEA HS TO WKEIf~$ 
SUCH HAPPENINGS OCCURRED. 




4* 



Washington's Administration 

What was our total public debt at the beginning of 
Washington's administration? Compare this with the 
national debt of to-day. 

What three states were admitted to the Union while 
Washington was president? In what year was each ad- 
mitted? What is a sobriquet for each of these states? 

What was the population of the United States at the 
first census? What state in the Union at the present 
time has a greater population? 

What seven important events occurred in Pennsyl- 
vania? Which three occurred in Philadelphia? 

What noted philosopher died? For what invention 
was he noted? How old was he? 

What invention had to do with the development of the 
Southern states? Who was the inventor? 

What title is given to Washington? 

Summary- 
See what pupil can express in the most interesting way a sum- 
mary of the events of any given period. We give here a summary 
of Washington's administration. We have expressed in a few words 
the gist of the events. Have a competitive recitation in which the 
pupils shall strive to express the most thought in the fewest words. 
This exercise can be applied to any period. 

When the first president took his seat our population was 

not quite 4,000,000. 
The first cabinet was formed by the selection of leaders 

from both parties. 
The financial policy proposed by Hamilton gave us money 

to pay our debts and established our credit. 
Washington wisely resisted Genet's wild policy. 
After the Indians were suppressed, emigration to the western 

country increased rapidly. 
Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee became states. 
The treaty with Spain gave us a natural outlet for the pro- 
ducts of the west. 
The cotton-gin was invented and cotton eventually became 
the chief crop of the Southern states. 



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J\^ _ THE CIVIL WAK^ yP 

'HE SERIES OF PEN SKETCHES f^ ;: "~ 
OUTLINING THE CIVIL WW POR-^T 
TRRY THE WRRCTERiSTIC EVERTSZ^ 
OF EACH /EM? IN SUCH A MY /IS TO IN- fe 
PELIQLY IMPRESS THEM ON THE STUDENT^ 
MIND. 

WiUlSO GIVE II SPECIAL PAGE "CAUSES " 
HHDMiUWlR Of REVIEW SKETCHES 
WHICH AXE VERY SUGGESTIVE. 

If THE TERCHER WILL USE THE'tREE" 
DESIGN AHD DEVELOP MPS THE DIFFERENT 
BATTLES ARE STUDIED IT WILL •*' \ v 
PROVE AN EFFECTIVE DEVICE. "If 

IF THE RESULTS BRE PICTURED jjl___ 
TO THB CHILD NSNERB PRE- IlP"*" 
SENT ED THE FACTS WILL flLr iigip 
WHYS BE REMEMBERED. =i§L 




Variety — Classification 

To the student familiar with history these pen sketches 
are self-interpreting. A careful study of them will reveal 
many facts that are not seen at a casual glance. 

While we believe there is enough variety to overcome 
monotony, yet we have endeavored to classify the events 
in such a way as to assist the memory. 

Variety is apparent in every sketch, and we simply 
mention one feature* you will notice that the admini- 
strations have different borders and the titles are in different 
styles of letter. 

The classification is shown in many ways, and we call 
attention to the similarity of borders for the series of each 
war. The border for the Intercolonial war is significant 
of Indian warfare, and the Revolution is representative 
of that period. In the war of 1812, which was carried 
on at sea, the border is indicative of sea warfare, and in 
the Civil war the flags of the Blue and the Gray are draped 
on either side. 

The simplicity in the drawings representing the Merri- 
mac and Monitor show how easy it is for the child to 
reproduce these battle scenes in an impressive way. The 
few lines in the pen portrait of General Lee enable any 
pupil to make such sketches. The old bridge at Antietam 
marks such an historic place and is so easily drawn that 
a teacher is hardly justified in taking a class over this 
subject without having the scene before them. This 
illustrative work impresses the student with the facts 
and enables the teacher to do effective work. 

A careful study of these sketches and a reproduction 
of them by the pupils, either on the blackboard or in writ- 
ten work, will interest the pupil and result in better teach- 
ing, as well. 







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Union Generals 


NAME 


SOBRIQUET 


FACTS 


Grant 


Unconditional Surrender 


His war record is history 


Sherman 


Uncle Bill-Old Tecumseh 


Made the celebrated ' 'March to the 

Sea " 
Leading cavalry general of the War 


Sheridan 


Little Phil 


Thomas 


Rock of Chickamauga 


At battle of Chickamauga and Nash- 
ville 
Defeated Confederates under Lee ax 


Mc Clellan 


Little Mac 






Antietam 


Burnsides 


Old Rhody 


Held the stone bridge at Antietam 


Hooker 


Fighting Joe 


Fought at Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge 


Hancock 


Hancock the Superb 


Second in command at Gettysburg 


Logan 


Black Jack 


Prominent in Western Army 


Meade 


Four-eyed George 


Won the Battle of Gettysburg 


Porter 




Noted for capture of Ft. Fisher 


Farragut 




Leading naval commander of war 



Review of the Principal Battles 





OBJECTS 


YEAR 


Blockade of Opening of 
Southern Ports Mississippi 


Capture of 
Richmond 


Cut Confeder- 
acy in Twain 


1861 1 Ft. Sumter j Bull Run. 
(Objects not j i Ball's Bluff. 
outlined) | Port Royal j War in Mis- j West Virginia 
souri Campaign 




1862 


Merrimac & 
Monitor 

Fortress 
Monroe 


Fort Henry 
Ft. Donelson 
Shiloh 

Island No. 10 
luka 
Corinth 
New Orleans 
Murfreesboro 


Williamsburg 

Jackson's Raid 

Fair Oaks 

7 Days' Retreat 

Antietam 




1863 


Charleston 


Vicksburg 
Port Hudson 
Jackson 
Chickamauga 
Chattanooga 


Fredericksburg 
Chancellorsville 
Gettysburg 




1864 


Oluster 
Alabama and 

Kearsarge 
Mobile 
Mc Allister 




Wilderness 
Cold Harbor 
Petersburg 
Winchester 
Cedar Creek 


Nashville 

Resaca 

Kenesaw 

Atlanta. 

Savannah 


1865 


Ft. Fisher 

Wilmington 

Charleston 


Five Forks 
Petersburg 
Richmond 


Columbus 
Charleston 
Bentonsville 
Raleigh 



Note. — The student can arrange a table after this style at the 
beginning of his study of the Civil War and fill in the names of all 
of the battles as 1 studied, underlining the ones won by the Confeder- 
ates. All minor engagements studied may be included in the table 
together with the contending generals if thought advisable. Thi^ 
table when complete will present a splendid synopsis of the battles 
of this war. 




HEROES OF THE UNION 

One nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all, is the 
heritage they preserved for posterity. 




HEROES OF THE CONFEDERACY 

Believing in the principles of States' Rights, they fought as true Americans have always 
fought, for the cause they thought to be just. 



Review of the Army of the Potomac 



Irwin McDowell 
Geo. B. McClellan 
A. E. Burnside 
Joseph Hooker 

Peninsular Campaign 
Bull Run 
Yorktown 

Williamsburg 

Siege of Richmond 
Seven Pines 
Beaver's Dam 
Gaines' Mill 
Savage Station 
White Oak Swamps 
Malvern Hill 

Lee's First Invasion 
Second Bull Run 
Harper's Ferry- 
South Monntain 



Commanders 

Geo. G. Meade 
U. S. Grant 
P. H. Sheridan 

Battles Fought 

Antietam 

Fredericksburg 

Chancellorsville 
Lee's Second Invasion 

Gettysburg 
Grant's Overland Campaign 

Wilderness 

Spottsylvania 

North Anna 

Cold Harbor 

Siege of Petersburg and Rich- 
mond 

Five Forks 

Lee's Surrender 



Confederate Army 



YEAR 


DEFENSIVE 


OFFENSIVE 




1861 


West Virginia 
Wilson Creek 
Bull Run 


Ft. Sumter 
Ball's Bluff 


1862 


WEST 

Ft. Henry and Donelson 
Murfreesboro 

EAST 

Yorktown 
Williamsburg 
Siege of Richmond 
Fredericksburg 


WEST 

Shiloh 

Iuka 

Corinth 

EAST 

Fair Oaks 
Seven Days 
Lee's Invasion 




1863 


Vicksburg 

Chancellorsville 

Chickamauga 


Gettysburg 
Chattanooga 


1864 


Atlanta Campaign 
Overland Campaign 


Nashville 
Shenandoah 




1865 


Through Carolina's Peters- 
burg and Richmond 


Ft. Steadman 
Five Forks 



o 






Johnson's Administration 

What were three important features of the President's 
idea of reconstruction? 

What additional requirements were imposed by Con- 
gress ? 

What is an appropriate epitaph for Lincoln's tomb? 

In what year was Nebraska admitted into the Union? 

What immense domain was added to the United States 
during this administration? Why was it known as "Sew- 
ard's Folly"? 

Name four important laws passed while Johnson was 
president. 

How many men took part in the Grand Review? How 
long did it last? How did the soldiers march? When 
did it occur? 

What .ended the dream of French domain in the New 
World? 

The Northern office-seekers who went south at the close 
of the Civil War were designated by what title? 

What two words express the thought of the XHIth 
Amendment? Of the XlVth? 

Law of Association 

The law of association in memory, that when we call up one 
thing of a group we naturally call up everything associated with it, 
has been employed throughout in the arrangement of this history. 

In the study of the sketch of Johnson's administration, the 
thought of Mexico immediately suggests Alaska, and each sketch 
recalls the facts associated with it. If one thinks of the amendments 
he immediately recalls laws, or vice versa. When one thinks of the 
President's idea of reconstruction he immediately contrasts it with 
Congress's idea. He cannot think of the Great Eastern without 
thinking of the laying of the Atlantic cable as its accomplishment, 
or in thinking of the Atlantic cable we immediately associate it with 
the majestic steamer that so successfully laid it. 




— 41G- 



Exposition of Facts Illustrated 

Grant. — Served two terms, between 1869-77. His famous reply to General 
Buckner gave him the title of ' 'Unconditional Surrender." His oft-quoted ex- 
pression, "Let us have peace," is characteristic of the man, although his active 
part in the Civil War gives us the impression of a warrior rather than a civilian. 

Our Ring Illustration. — Tweed Ring — a political ring famous for its unscrup- 
ulous dishonesty. It ruled New York from 1860-1871. Whiskey Ring — A com- 
bination of revenue officers and distillers formed to defraud the government of 
internal revenue tax on liquors. Salary Grab — the popular name for the dating 
back of the salary act so that the members voting for it would have their past salary 
raised. Credit Mobilier — a corporation to construct the Pacific railroad and 
enable the stockholders and other persons connected with them to reap extraordin- 
ary profits. 

Union Pacific Railroad. — The year 1869 saw the completion of the great rail- 
road linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 

Telephone. — The first satisfactory results of this great invention was during 
this administration. 

Weather Bureau. — In 1870 Congress made a money appropriation for the 
establishment of a weather bureau. 

Treaty of Washington. — Alabama Claims — the United States demanded 
damages for the injuries done our merchantmen during the Civil War and was 
awarded $15,500,000 damages. Northwestern Boundary — the boundary dis- 
pute between the United States and British Columbia was settled. Fisheries 
Award — Great Britain was awarded $5,000,000 in settlement of claims arising 
from the fisheries near the coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. 

Demonetization of Silver. — A coinage act in 1873 dropped the silver dollar 
from the list of coins to be minted. It was no longer to be a legal tender. Specie 
payment was resumed. 

Chicago Fire. — Five square miles were burned, resulting in a loss of 20,000 
houses and property valued at $200,000,000. Boston was partly destroyed — loss 
amounting to $80,000,000. 

Centennial was celebrated with great success in Philadelphia in 1876 by an inter- 
national exposition. In industrial inventions the United States took first place. 

Colorado was admitted into the union in 1876, just 100 years after American 
independence, and was styled the Centennial State. 

Santo Domingo asked to be admitted to the United States. It was a fine coal- 
ing station and its fertile area well adapted to the colonization of negroes. Congress 
refused to consent to the plan. 

Indian Wars. — The Modocs of southern Oregon refused to move to another 
reservation, killed the peace commissioners and concealed themselves for more 
than a year. The Sioux were mistreated and under their leader, Sitting Bull, 
avenged themselves. 

Fifteenth Amendment was adopted in 1870 and was intended to guarantee to 
all adult negroes the right of voting. 

Ku-Klux Klan was a secret society formed to keep freedmen "in their place." 
Their outrages were obnoxious to southerners themselves and the enforcement of 
severe laws finally put an end to their meetings. 

Panic of 1873. — The lavish expenditures of war, a series of good crops, rapid 
westward growth, unstable currency and the too rapid building of railroads caused 
a financial panic, the effect of which continued for a number of years. 

Fenian Invasion. The Fenians made several attacks along the Canadian 
frontier, but were quickly suppressed. 

Niagara Bridge. — A bridge, spanning Niagara, was completed. 

Electoral Commission settled the disputed presidential election by declaring 
Hayes elected over Tilden, his Democratic opponent. 




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Acquisition of Territory 

Thirteen original colonies July 4, 1776 

Cessions by the states 

Massachusetts cession 1785 

Connecticut cession 1796-1800 

Virginia cession 1784 

South Carolina cession 1787 

North Carolina cession 1790 

Georgia cession 1802 

Louisiana purchase from France 1803 

Florida purchase from Spain 1819 

Texas annexed. . . . , 1 845 

Oregon country 1846 

Mexican cession 1848 

Texas cession from Texas 1850 

Part of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma. 

Gadsden purchase from Mexico 1853 

Alaska from Russia 1876 

Hawaiian Islands annexed 1898 

Philippine Islands from Spain 1898 

Porto Rico from Spain 1898 

Guam from Spain 1898 



ITEMS 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


PHILIPPINES 


PORTO RICO 


GUAM 


Acquired 


1898 


1898 


1898 


1898 


Area, Sq. 


7,000 


140,000 


3,550 


19C 


miles 










Rivers 


Small rivers, 


Very few and 


Numerous, short 






numerous; help 
irrigation 
Mauna Koa, 


small 


and rapid 




Mountains 


Mayon, 8,000 


El Yunque, 


Tinkio 




13,805 




3,609 




Popula- 


154,001 


8,000,000 


800,000 


9,250- 


tion 










Climate 


Frequent 


Fresh and cool, 


Hot, but not un- 


Favorable, 




showers; wind 


Nov. to Mar. 


healthful; de- 


healthful 




prevents e x - 


Very hot, Mar. 


lightful 






cessive heat 


to June 






Products. 


Sugar, rice, 


Hemp, sugar, 


Sugar, coffee, 


Sugar, i n - 




coffee, fruits 


coffee, tobacco. 


tobacco, rice, 


digo, rice, 






rice, fruits 


fruits 


fruits 


Exports 


1907 


1906 


1907 






§29,054,381 
(U.S.) 
1907. 


§32,642,892 


826,964,617 




Imports. 


1906 


1907 






$14,124,516 


§26,403,768 


§28,901,352 






(U. S.) 








Occupa- 


Agriculture 


Agriculture, 


Agriculture, 


Fishing 


tion 


and grazing 


grazing, min- 


grazing, min- 


and Agri- 






ing 


ing 


culture 


Miles R.R. 


72 


120 


137 




Capital 


Honolulu, 30,000 


Manila, 350, 000 


San Juan. 25,000 


Agana, 5000 


Other city 


Hilo, 12,000 


Lipa, 40,000 


Ponce. 40,000 


Apra 



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Gnnnnnnffinnti 




"<^CwOii. 



Lowly Beginnings of Great Men 

Nothing can be more inspiring to the youthful mind 
or a greater incentive to effort than a study of our truly 
great men. Biography is the basis of all historical study. 

It is the aim of this illustration to set forth in a 
simple way the possibilities before our American youth and 
to incite them to emulate the examples of such men and 
to aspire to the same greatness. 

If the student can be incited to great and generous 
and virtuous deeds by the silent yet potent portrayal of these 
"Lowly Beginnings" and can be persuaded to study more 
fully the biographies of our great men and their historical 
relations, thus becoming familiar with the characters who 
have given us a place the most exalted among the nations 
of the earth, our sketch will have accomplished its mission. 

We are not so much concerned to make scholars as to 
bring our boys and girls into a sympathetic knowledge of their 
environments and to fit them for intelligent citizenship. 
The timid should be encouraged with the story of Daniel 
Webster, who received but a few months' schooling and as 
a boy was too shy to speak a piece in school, yet later 
stirred the nation with his eloquence. 

Many such instructive and inspiring lessons will thus 
suggest themselves to the thoughtful teacher and devoted 
mother, and it will prove a satisfaction to feel that we 
have neglected nothing that might be an inspiration to 
youthful minds in stimulating their patriotism and develop- 
ing their character. 

The intent of this illustration will be lost if by it the 
children are not made more patriotic and led to under- 
stand more fully the import of citizenship. 



Additional Exercises 

In the preparation of this work more than one thousand 
prominent educators, including many of the leading history 
teachers, were consulted and their most practical suggestions 
solicited. These suggestions have been incorporated in the 
outlines and exercises which we give you. We believe that 
a successful teacher can use to advantage the hundreds of 
exercises here suggested. 

Originality in design and selection of material is nesessary 
if the student expects to be greatly benefited. Students 
should think for themselves and be impressed with the fact 
that studying history is not memorizing something but 
understanding something. 

Blackboards 

The value of blackboard illustrations is one of the most important 
features of a teacher's work. A very successful city teacher of fifteen 
years' experience recently remarked that she had never known a pupil 
to fail on a written review based on previous illustrative work. 

Note Books 

Use note books freely. Require every pupil to keep note books. 
Stimulation of thought on the part of the pupils should be encouraged 
and excellence of reproduction constantly strived for. "Once writing 
a copy is worth twice reading it." 

Drawings 

Drawings require attention to details and results in an accurate 
knowledge. Much interest can be created by illustrating lessons. In 
this way the eye will assist the memory in mastering the facts. 

Outline Maps 

Outline maps should be filled in representing each period studied. 
The pupil will then see the country develop and the geography and 
history will be indissolubly linked. This series of maps giving the 
names and dates will be valuable for reference. The teacher will at 
all times strive to have the pupils see the place as well as the time of 
historical occurrences. 



Charts 

Charts are very helpful in studying history and pupils should be 
encouraged to prepare them for the permanent use of the school. 
They will become very much interested in the preparation of lessons 
to be hung on the wall for display. Such work will not only be valuable 
to the pupils but will be found very helpful for reference. 

Color Work 

Insist on the use of colored pencils and colored crayons. They 
can be supplied at a nominal price and will add variety and insure 
interest in the work. Such work will naturally lead to water color 
work and other artistic development. 

Queer Queries 

Flagging interest can be stimulated by introducing queer queries 
to spice the recitation and at the same time result in a more com- 
prehensive study of the subject. Pupils should be encouraged to pre- 
pare a list of test questions logically arranged. 

Outlines 

Outlines systematize the matter and are an aid in studying the 
subject from a variety of books. Pupils should be encouraged to 
develop systematic outlines. If developed aright they will occasion 
an industrious study, enliven the recitation period and result in intel- 
ligent and accurate students. 

Tables 

Tables will give practice in condensing material and picking out 
essentials. When complete they present a good general view of the 
subject. We have supplied several styles and others can be originated 
to develop various subjects. 

Scrap Books 

Every class should prepare a scrap book containing classified 
historical information, clippings from books, magazines and original 
writings, embellished with illustrations from books or by the student 
as the class progresses. This volume, if carefully prepared, will prove 
the most popular reference book in the library and can be used with 
profit by succeeding teachers. 

Supplementary Reading 

Every history class should have access to the New Practical His- 
tory of the World to supplement the text. A good encyclopedia is 
necessary and the New Practical Reference Library will prove invaluable. 
Never rely wholly on one text. Many texts will result in a critical 
and inquisitive mind and will arouse the pupils interest and inspire 
enthusiasm for the study. 



>f5 -WsHINGTON- r ^ 

F/RST PRESIDENT. 

HAMILTON'S FINANCIAL PLANS. 

-1790- 

Cotton gin invented. 
Difficulties with genet. 

''773- 

Whisky insurrection. 

-'77?~ 

JAY '5 TREATY 
k -'77* 



O^OVS- 



_J? 



Historical Cards 

Have your pupils prepare a card for each administration showing 
five of the most important events. The teacher can hold all the cards 
and read an event. The pupil that can give the President's name 
first gets the card and the one securing the most cards wins the game. 
Each exercise is different since different questions can be asked. The 
pupils may each take several cards and ask the questions in turn and 
play for a given time, as ten minutes, or until one pupil secures all of 
the cards. If it is an advanced class and the teacher desires to em- 
phasize the dates, the teacher can read the facts and have the pupils give 
the dates of same. A few exercises of this kind will fix definitely in 
the mind the dates of important events in history. 

Every pupil should know five important events of each admini- 
stration. Few pupils can tell in whose administration we have the 
Embargo Act, The Purchase of Louisiana, The Omnibus Bill, etc. 
By simply knowing the administration, it gives us a general idea 
without the necessity of attempting to fix exact dates. 

A simple exercise can be prepared on other periods of American 
history, on biography, etc. These games will be carried into the homes 
and much valuable information acquired without direct effort. 






VALUE OF SPECIAL PROG-RAMS 

1 ' Variety is the spice of life " is no more true in society and 
business than it is in the school, and the teacher who hopes to succeed 
must constantly be introducing new features that will increase the 
interest of her pupils in their work. For this purpose nothing is 
more effective than a program each month, consisting of exercises 
appropriate for some special day. 

Such programs not only add interest, but they often have great 
inspirational and educational value. The pupils who take part in 
programs which celebrate the birthdays of men of nobility and 
achievement, like Washington and Lincoln, or which commemorate 
important historic events like the discovery of America or the 
institution of Thanksgiving, are learning great truths of life and 
studying the progress of civilization in a way that is certain to make 
a lasting impression. 

The teacher sometimes feels that the parents do not fully appre- 
ciate her efforts. There is no better way to advertise her work than 
to have exercises on special days, which the patrons of the school 
may attend. Every occasion of this kind should be an " open house, ' ' 
and should be advertised in the local papers. 

In the following pages are suggestions for special programs which 
the teacher will find helpful as a basis to work upon. Material for 
all of the special days may be obtained from the school supply com- 
panies, and programs and exercises may also be found in the various 
school journals. For additional information write to the NATIONAL 
PEOGEESS LEAGUE, 104 S. Michigan Avenue, Chicago. 

THE STORY OF OUR FLAG- 

Our star-spangled banner, emblem of union and liberty, had its 
origin in the struggle of the thirteen colonies for independence. 
During the early period of the Eevolution several different flags were 
carried by the American troops. The first standard of the united 
colonies was the Grand Union Flag of 1776, which General Washington 
unfurled to the breeze over his headquarters at Cambridge, Mass., on 
January 2, 1776. This standard had thirteen stripes, alternate red 



and white, to represent the thirteen colonies, and on its blue field 
it bore the colors of the king, the red cross of Saint George, and the 
white cross of Saint Andrew, to show that the sovereignty of Great 
Britain was still acknowledged. 

When the colonies announced their independence by adopting 
the Declaration of 1776, it was felt that a national emblem of the 
new nation should be chosen, and on June 14, 1777, the birthday 
of the stars and stripes, Congress adopted the following resolution: 
' ' Besolved, that the flag of the Thirteen United States shall be 
thirteen stripes, alternate white and red, and that the Union be thir- 
teen white stars on a blue field." The first flag, which had a circle 
of thirteen white stars on a blue field, was made by Mrs. Betsy Boss, 
one of the most skilful needlewomen in the colonies, at her home 
at 239 Arch Street, Philadelphia. 

As each star and stripe represented a state, when Vermont and 
Kentucky came into the Union, in 1791 and 1792, it became necessary 
to increase the number of stars and stripes to fifteen, and an act 
providing for this increase was passed by Congress in 1795. The flag 
of fifteen stripes and fifteen stars floated over Fort McHenry through- 
out the attack of the night of September 13, 1814, and it was this 
banner that inspired Francis Scott Key to write his immortal song 
The Star Spangled Banner. In 1818 Congress passed the act which 
determined the present arrangement of the flag, reducing the number 
of stripes to thirteen, and providing that on the Fourth of July 
following the admission of each new state to the Union, one star 
should be added to the blue field. 

Our present flag bears forty-eight white stars on a blue field, 
arranged in six rows of eight stars each, and since its first birthday, 
June 14, 1777, nearly one hundred and fifty years ago, it has never 
lost a star. Its colors stand today for what they stood in the time 
of our forefathers — red for valor, white for purity, blue for fidelity. 

Sign of a nation, great and strong 

To ward her people from foreign wrong ; 

Pride and glory, honor, all 

Live in the colors to stand or fall. 

FLAG DAYS 

Every school district should own a flag, and float it above the 
school-house on the anniversaries given below. Opening exercises 
appropriate for the occasion should also be provided. In addition 
to these anniversaries, dates of prominence in connection with your 



particular state should be observed, such as the date on which it was 
organized as a territory, and the date on which it was admitted to 
statehood. The flag should also float on 

Labor Day the first Monday in September 

Mother 's Day the second Sunday in May 

Arbor Day and Bird Day. .vary according to the locality 

President's birthday Woodrow Wilson's occurs on Dec. 28 

Thanksgiving Day the last Thursday in November 

Presidential election day. .which falls on the first Tuesday after 

the first Monday in November, in 
even-numbered years, divisible by 
four 



List of Flag Days 

Sept. 14, 1901 Death of McKinley — half mast 

Oct. 7, 1765 First Colonial Congress 

Oct. 12, 1492 Discovery of America by Columbus 

Dec. 16, 1773 Boston Tea Party 

Dec. 17, 1807 Birth of Whittier 

Dec. 22, 1620 .Landing of the Pilgrims 

Dec. 25 Christmas 

Jan. 1 New Year 's Day 

Jan. 19, 1807 Birthday of Eobert E. Lee (observed 

at present only in the Southern 

states) 

Feb. 12, 1809 Birthday of Abraham Lincoln 

Feb. 14 Valentine's Day - 

Feb. 22, 1732 Birthday of George Washington 

Feb. 27, 1807 Birthday of Longfellow 

March 4, 1789 First United States Congress 

April 15, 1865 Death of Lincoln — half mast 

April 19, 1775 Battle of Lexington 

April 30, 1789 Inauguration of Washington 

May 4, 1796 Birthday of Horace Mann 

May 18, 1899 Peace Day — First Hague Conference 

opened 

May 30 Memorial Day 

June 14, 1777 National Flag adopted 

July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence adopted 






" Every color means liberty, every thread means lib- 
erty, every form of star or stripe of light means liberty 
— organized, instituted liberty — liberty through laws 
and laws for liberty. It is a whole national history." 

— Henry Ward Beecher. 



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I* fe 

ta THE MEANING- OF OUR FLAG 1* 

^ "For me the flag does not express a mere body of ^ 

te vague sentiments. It is the embodiment, not of senti- ^ 
^ ment, but of a history, and no man can rightly serve ^ 
fc under that flag who has not caught some of the meaning ^ 

of that history. 
^ "You do not create the meaning of a national life ^ 

^ by any literary expression of it, but by the actual daily ^ 
^ endeavors of a great people to do the tasks of the day ^ 

and live up to the ideals of honesty and righteousness 

and just conduct, 
te "Let us not forget that the real experience and 

^ life of a nation lies with the great multitude of un- fe 
^ known men. They constitute the body of the nation. ^ 

This flag is the essence of their daily labor. This flag 

does not express any more than what they are and what 
te they desire to be. ^ 

^ "Back not only of every public official, but of every ^ 

,__ man and woman of the United States, there marches ,__ 

that great host which has brought us to the present day; 
^ the host that has never forgot the vision which it saw 
fc at the birth of the nation; the host which always re- fe 
^ sponds to the dictates of humanity and of liberty; the ^ 
fe host that will always constitute the strength and the great 

body of friends of every man who does his duty to 
* the United States, 

^ "I am sorry that you do not wear a little flag of 

fe the Union every day instead of some days ; and I can 

only ask you, if you lose the physical emblem, to be 

sure that you wear it in your heart, and the heart of 
te America shall interpret the heart of the world." 
te — Woodrow Wilson. 



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PEACE DAT 

Peace hath her victories, no less renowned than war. 

— Milton. 

The flag of the American people is the emblem of a land of peace 
as well as a symbol of military glory. War in all ages has been the 
herald of ruin and desolation, but the culmination of its horror and 
misery has been reached in the second decade of the twentieth century. 
There is, therefore, no better time than the present to impress the 
pupils with the beautiful ideal of universal peace, and a peace pro- 
gram, similar to the one given below, may be effectively used for 
this purpose. May 18, the date of the opening of the first Hague 
Conference, which has been suggested by the superintendents of the 
American schools, is a suitable day for holding peace exercises, if your 
school does not close before this date. Appropriate exercises and ma- 
terial may be obtained from the World Peace Foundation, 40 Mt. 
Vernon St., Boston, Mass. 



Peace Day Program 

1. Song by the school — America. 

2. Talk by the teacher: the story of the Hague Peace Confer- 

ences. What has been accomplished already by arbitration. 
The value of peace in a community and a school. How to 
develop self-control. 

3. Story and description of the Temple of Peace at the Hague 

(by a pupil). 

4. Song (selected). 

5. Paper (by an older pupil) — The Cost of War. 

6. Eecitation — The Reign of Peace, by Eliza Thornton (from 

Beacon Lights of Patriotism). 

7. Peace Gems — by several pupils (peace utterances of famous 

men). 

8. Paper — The Story of the American School Peace League. 

9. Eecitation— The Recessional, by Kipling. 
10. Closing song. 






EXERCISES IN CHARACTER BUILDING 

Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime. 

— Longfellow. 

Character grows through the inspiration furnished by the noble 
example of the great and good men and women of the past and 
present. The teacher making a wise use of PEOGEESS OF 
NATIONS can devote Friday afternoon of each week to a special 
exercise in character building, to the profit of her pupils. In 
volume VI, pages 398-539, and volume VII, pages 1-99, there is a 
wealth of material on the life and character of Washington, and 
throughout the work may be found equally valuable information on 
other great characters of the world. A program similar to the one 
given below can be worked out in connection with each of the subjects 
selected. 

Perseverance 

Motto : 

"It is not the worst thing in the world to fail, the worst thing 
is not to try. ' ' 

Essay — Perseverance. 

(a) In work; with hard or distasteful tasks. 

(b) In play; fighting out a lost game. 

(c) In self -improvement. 

(d) In working out a purpose. 

Biography : 

Columbus Elias Howe Helen Keller 

James Watt Cyrus W. Field DeWitt Clinton 

Fables : 

The Hare and the Tortoise The Crow and the Pitcher 

The Hill The Giraffe's Long NecTc 

Eecitation : 

Bruce and the Spider Columbus, by Joaquin Miller 

Excelsior, by Longfellow 

Quotations : 

Have each one of the pupils be prepared to give a quotation 
showing the advantage of perseverance in all the duties of life. 



Follow the plan as above outlined, and supplement it with such 
additional material as will be suggested by the topic. The teacher 
should give a final talk, applying the subject to school work and 
emphasizing the fact that it is only through perseverance that suc- 
cess comes. 



SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FRIDAY 
PROGRAMS 

Courage — Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Wellington. 
Ambition — Thomas A. Edison, Stephen A. Douglas, Marshall Field. 
Patriotism — Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Henry Clay. 
Kindness to Animals — J. J. Audubon, Henry Bergh, George T. Angell. 
Heroism — Joan of Arc, Grace Darling, Nathan Hale. 
Self -Reliance — Miles Standish, Peter Cooper, Theodore Roosevelt. 
Self -Control — George "Washington, Daniel Webster, Eobert E. Lee. 
Fortitude — Laura Bridgman, William H. Prescott, Beethoven. 
Obedience — Stephen Decatur, T. J. Jackson, George E. Pickett. 
Determination — Bismarck, Oliver Cromwell, George W. Goethals. 
Industry — Robert Pulton, Benjamin Franklin, Luther Burbank. 
Initiative — Daniel Boone, Cyrus McCormick, Robert E. Peary. 
Purity — John G. Whittier, Frances E. Willard, James A. Garfield. 
Sympathy — Florence Nightingale, Helen Gould Shepard, Jane Addams. 
Earnestness — Robert Emmet, John Hancock, William Lloyd Garrison. 
Loyalty to Principle — Grover Cleveland, W. E. Gladstone, John Hay. 
Love of Truth — Demosthenes, William Penn, John Adams. 
Courtesy — Sir Philip Sidney, George W. Curtis, William MeKinley. 
Self -Respect — Rutherf or dB. Hayes, Horace Greeley, Thomas Jefferson. 
Unselfishness — John Howard, Clara Barton, Julia C. Lathrop. 
Concentration — Sir Isaac Newton, Cnarles Darwin, Louis Agassiz. 
High Ideals — Ralph Waldo Emerson, Longfellow, Henry M. Stanley. 
Consecration to Duty — John Eliot, David Livingstone, Father Damien. 
Cheerfulness — Oliver Wendell Holmes, John Burroughs, Eugene Field. 
Comradeship — J. G. Holland, Mark Twain, James Whitcomb Riley. 
Patience — Samuel F. B. Morse, John Milton, Richard Cobden. 
Justice — Aristides, Alfred the Great, Marcus Aurelius. 
Enthusiasm — James Wolfe, General William Booth, Julia Ward Howe. 
Reverence — Edward E. Hale, John Henry Newman, Phillips Brooks. 



BIOGRAPHY STUDY 

The study of biography can be made very effective by using it 
as a feature of the morning exercises. Since it adds variety and 
interest to study the life of a great character on the anniversary 
of his birth, the teacher should make out each month a list of the 
famous men and women whose birthdays fall in that month. Then 
she should select from the list the names of the persons in whom her 
pupils will be most interested and whose biographies will be most 
helpful to them. The life of each character selected should be pre- 
sented by a different pupil on the anniversary of the birth of that 
character. 

Below is given a list of famous January birthdays. Both the 
teacher and pupils will find it an interesting exercise to prepare similar 
lists for other school months. 



January Birthdays 



Anthony Wayne January 1, 1745 

Paul Eevere ' ' 1, 1735 

Maria Edgeworth ' ' 1, 1767 

James Wolfe " 2, 1727 

Lucretia Mott " 3, 1793 

Benedict Arnold " 3, 1740 

Tom Thumb (C. H. Stratton) " 4, 1836 

Stephen Decatur " 5, 1779 

Charles Sumner ' ' 6, 1811 

Joan of Arc ' " 6, 1411 

Millard Fillmore " 7, 1800 

Israel Putnam " 7, 1718 

Lowell Mason " 8, 1792 

Lemuel Shaw " 9, 1781 

Ethan Allen " 10, 1737 

Alexander Hamilton " 11, 1757 

Bayard Taylor " 11, 1825 

John Hancock " 11, 1737 

Samuel Woodworth ' ' 13, 1785 

Salmon P. Chase " 13, 1808 

Philip Livingston ' ' 15, 1716 



Benjamin Franklin " 

Daniel Webster " 

Edgar Allan Poe " 

Eobert E. Lee " 

Eichard H. Lee " 

John C. Fremont ' ' 

T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson ' ' 

Francis Bacon " 

George Gordon, Lord Byron " 

"William Page " 

E. C. Haydon " 

Frederick the Great " 

Eobert Burns ' ' 

T. N. Talfourd 

Wolfgang Mozart " 

Mathew Carey ' ' 

James Tallmadge " 

Thomas Paine ' ' 

Henry (Light Horse Harry) Lee " 

William McKinley ' ' 

Charles Eollins " 

James G. Blaine " 

Franz Schubert " 

Ben Jonson " 



COLUMBUS DAY 

The crowning achievement of the medieval period, the discovery of 
America, by Columbus, on October 12, 1492, is an event of such vital 
importance to Americans that every school should celebrate October 12 
with Columbus Day exercises. The program should begin with a 
salute to the stars and stripes. There are several flag pledges which 
can be used in connection with the salute. The following is excellent : 

I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands ; 
one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. 

The singing of patriotic songs is an important feature of a 
Columbus Day program. For another effective exercise, have three 
of the older pupils work up the life story of Columbus. The full- 
page Columbus picture in the Graphic Volume of PEOGEESS OF 



17, 


1706 


18, 


1782 


19, 


1809 


19, 


1807 


20, 


1732 


21, 


1813 


21, 


1824 


22, 


1561 


22, 


1788 


23, 


1511 


23, 


1786 


24, 


1712 


25, 


1759 


26, 


1795 


27, 


1756 


28, 


1760 


28, 


1778 


29, 


1737 


29, 


1756 


29, 


1843 


30, 


1661 


31, 


1830 


31, 


1797 


31, 


1574 






NATIONS will give helpful suggestions for this exercise. One of 
the pupils may present the story of the boyhood and youth of Colum- 
bus, and the other two take up the period of achievement, including 
his belief that the world is round, his applications for aid, his voyages 
and discoveries, and his unhappy death. 

There are three excellent poems on Columbus, by James Eussell 
Lowell, Joaquin Miller, and Alfred Tennyson. There are also other 
appropriate recitations that can be found. 

A simple dramatization of Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand 
and Isabella or of his landing on the Island of San Salvador can be 
worked out by the ingenious teacher. The Columbus and Indian 
pictures in the Graphic Volume and the color plate of Columbus 
at the Court of Spain should be consulted. 

The room may be decorated with mottoes, flags, red, white and 
blue bunting, and pictures showing different events in the life of 
Columbus. The following Perry pictures are recommended: 

Departure of Columbus (No. 1323) 

Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella. . (No. 1327) 

Columbus on the Deck of the Santa Maria (No. 1328) 

Landing of Columbus (No. 1329) 

Statues of Columbus (Nos. 1326 and 1269) 



PIONEER DAY 

The pioneers are the men who have blazed the trail for others to 
pass over. A pioneer day program affords an excellent opportunity 
to review the early history of your state or community, and the occa- 
sion may also be celebrated as a home-coming day. Invite the early 
settlers of the locality to take part in the exercises, telling of their 
pioneer experiences, and showing the progress made since the first days 
of settlement. Pioneers and sons of pioneers should be asked to 
speak. The pupils may contribute to the program by preparing papers 
or talks on the great national pioneers of America, such as Daniel 
Boone, David Crockett, General Lewis Cass, and the heroes of the 
Lewis and Clark Expedition. Old-fashioned songs, like Auld Lang 
Syne and Some, Sweet Home, will be appropriate. The decorations 
should be suggestive of the agricultural products and industries of the 
community, and on the walls there should be pictures of men and 
women who have contributed to the upbuilding of the community. 



HALLOWE'EN 

The night of Hallowe'en is an excellent occasion on which to 
have an entertainment to raise funds for a school library. The 
evening may be made a combination of harvest festival, school exhibit, 
social, and auction of lunch boxes. The date of the celebration, 
October 31, toward the close of the harvest season, suggests that 
brightly-colored leaves and berries from the autumn woods, corn and 
other grains, nuts and rosy apples may be used to decorate the room. 
The time-honored Jack o' Lantern must not be forgotten, and candle- 
holders made of carrots, turnips or potatoes, with yellow paper shades, 
are very effective. Figures of cats, witches, brownies, elves, and 
fairies, cut out of black and yellow paper, are also picturesque 
Hallowe 'en decorations. 

The teacher should take advantage of an occasion like this, when 
there is certain to be a good representation of school patrons, to 
exhibit specimens of the work being done by the pupils; that is, 
examples of their composition work, drawing, clay modeling, etc. 
Eemember that the live, successful teacher is the one who is asked 
to return the next year at an increased salary. 

Among the important social features of the evening are booths 
for fairies, witches and gypsy fortune-tellers. The fairies may sell 
candies, Hallowe'en favors, and votes, one cent each, for the most 
popular girl and the homeliest man. Award a cake to the winner 
in the popular-girl contest, and a pair of socks to the homeliest man. 
Fortune-telling by the witches and gypsies is sure to create much 
merriment. Charge a small sum for each fortune told. 

Between the social hour and the auction of lunch boxes there may 
be a short program of Hallowe 'en recitations and songs. Be sure 
to select the wit of the neighborhood for your auctioneer. 



THANKSGIVING 

Schools having a large number of pupils can celebrate our earliest 
national festival in no more delightful way than by giving in the form 
of a play the story of Hiawatha or the Courtship of Miles Standish, 
or by acting out some other episodes in the life of the Pilgrim 
Fathers. The story of the Thanksgiving festival may also be pre- 
sented effectively in a series of tableaux. Thanksgiving Day, however, 
can be observed in every school, regardless of its size. One of the best 



ways of impressing the pupils with the historic development of 
Thanksgiving, and of showing its significance as an American festival, 
is to have the story presented by several of the older pupils in the 
following manner: 

Make an outline showing the development of the Thanksgiving 
festival, and assign to different pupils the topics included in it. The 
outline will be somewhat like the one given below: 

I. The Pilgrims. 

A. Their persecution in England and emigration to 

Holland. 
Why they would not stay in Holland. 

B. Voyage of the Mayflower and the landing on 

Plymouth Rock. 

C. Life in America: Homes, food, starving time, first 

planting and harvest. 

D. Their first Thanksgiving. Their guests, the Indians. 

II. The Thanksgiving festivals during the Revolution. Wash- 
ington's Thanksgiving Proclamation of 1789. 

III. The crusade of Mrs. Sarah Hale, the "mother of Thanks- 

giving. ' ' 

How she persuaded President Lincoln to appoint the last 
Thursday in November as a day of national 
rejoicing. 

IV. What Thanksgiving means today. 

The program should be varied by songs and recitations. Mrs. 
Pelicia D. Heman's Landing of the Pilgrims and Longfellow's The 
Ship of State are especially appropriate recitations. 

The room may be decorated with flags, bunting, and festoons of 
leaves, nuts, grains and fruit, tied with red, white and blue ribbon 
or strips of tissue paper. Collections of Indian and colonial relics 
are also effective. There is hardly a community that cannot furnish 
a spinning-wheel or old-fashioned pieces of furniture, and Indian 
moccasins, arrow-heads, bows, snowshoes, etc. Pictures suggestive 
of Thanksgiving should also be hung, including flag-draped portraits 
of the President and Governor. 



CHRISTMAS 

It is never difficult to obtain songs, recitations and drills appro- 
priate for a Christmas entertainment, but the teacher can introduce 
an element of variety by arranging an exercise showing how Christmas 
is celebrated in other lands. This exercise can be made very interest- 
ing and instructive, especially if the children taking part dress in 
costume. The pupils will also enjoy acting out some of the episodes 
in Dickens' Christmas Carol. The Christmas greens, the holly and the 
mistletoe, make beautiful decorations. Christmas mottoes, made by 
the children, may be used. One of the most delightful of Christmas 
celebrations is an entertainment on Christmas Eve, to which all the 
school patrons are invited. This can be made a neighborhood social. 
Have the pupils set up and arrange the tree, and decorate the room. 
They should also be encouraged to decorate cards of greeting, book- 
marks, etc., with drawings or water-color designs, to give to their 
friends and relatives at the Christmas Eve entertainment. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY 

The celebration of New Tear's Day affords an exceptional oppor- 
tunity for an inspirational program. The first day of a new year 
suggests new opportunities and new hopes, and the teacher should 
arrange a program that will impress the pupils with the importance 
of making the coming year the best thus far in their lives. 

The room may be decorated with evergreen, the foliage of winter, 
and pictures of winter scenes will also be appropriate. Have the 
children make calendar designs and mottoes, to be hung on the walls. 
The entire school should agree upon a resolution for the new year. 
The letters spelling this resolution may be cut out of paper of differ- 
ent colors and be pasted on a card to be hung in a conspicuous place. 

ST. VALENTINE'S DAY 

All of the school children look forward to the day on which they 
may have a Valentine box and send and receive the pretty trifles 
associated with the occasion. The celebration of Valentine's Day, 
however, can be made more than an occasion of merriment, for it 
gives the teacher an opportunity to have the pupils do handwork. The 
heart-shaped pasteboard box, covered with red paper, should be made 
by them, and they should also design and construct their own valen- 
tines. This affords a valuable exercise as well, in writing and print- 
ing. Some of the children will show talent for verse-making. 



WASHINGTON AND LINCOLN BIRTHDAY 
EXERCISES 

The program for a Washington's birthday celebration given below 
may also be used as a model for a Lincoln program. The decora- 
tions for both occasions are practically the same. Have the pupils 
decorate the blackboard with a border of flags, using colored crayons. 
Show the different flags that have been used in America. (The col- 
ored pictures of these flags may be found in any unabridged dic- 
tionary. Also see colored flag plate in this volume.) On the wall 
above them all, drape the stars and stripes. In the centre of the 
blackboard have a panel drawn, and in it write an appropriate quota- 
tion. A picture of Washington or Lincoln, draped with red, white 
and blue, should occupy a conspicuous place. If possible, procure 
besides a bust of the hero of the day. Pictures, flags, bunting, ever- 
green, and potted plants and ferns may also be used as decorations. 

"Washington Program 

1. Salute to the Flag. 

2. Patriotic Song. 

3. Beading — Why we celebrate Washington's birthday. 

4. Stories — The boyhood of Washington, told by several pupils. 

5. Tableau — George Washington and the cherry tree. 

6. Song. 

7. Drill — With hatchets or flags, by boys. 

8. Stories — The youth and manhood of Washington. 

9. Recitation — Washington's Rules of Conduct, repeated by 
several pupils, each rising and telling one. 

10. Story of Washington as commander-in-chief. 

11. Reading — Washington as President. 

12. Song. 

13. Reading — The character and influence of Washington. 

14. Patriotic quotations. 

15. Song — America. 

Lee's Birthday 

South of Mason and Dixon's line the birthday of Robert E. Lee 
is observed as a general holiday. A school program presenting the 
life and character of this greet general can be worked out by a 
progressive teacher. The personal character of Lee should be empha- 
sized, as he was a man of lofty ideals and noble conduct. 



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OPPORTUNITY 

Master of human destinies am I! 
Fame, love, and fortune on my footsteps wait. 
Cities and fields I walk; I penetrate 
Deserts and seas remote, and passing by 
Hovel and mart and palace — soon or late 
I knock unbidden once at every gate! 

If sleeping, wake — if feasting, rise before 
I turn away. It is the hour of fate, 
And they who follow me reach every state 
Mortals desire, and conquer every foe 
Save death; but those who doubt or hesitate, 
Condemned to failure, penury, and woe, 
Seek me in vain and uselessly implore, 
I answer not, and I return no more! 

— Jolin James IngaTls. 



It matters not how strait the gate, 
How charged with punishment the scroll; 
I am the master of my fate, 
I am the captain of my soul. 

— William E. Henley. 



Let us have faith that right makes might, and in that faith let us, 
to the end, dare to do our duty as we understand it. 

— Abraham Lincoln. 



The heights by great men reached and kept 

Were not attained by sudden flight, 
But they, while their companions slept, 

Were toiling upward in the night. 

— Henry W. Longfellow. 



Knowledge, in truth, is the -great sun in the firmament. Life and 
power are scattered with all its beams. 

— Daniel Webster. 



PART TWO 

Manual of Methods 



METHODS IN HISTORY 
WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO UNITED STATES HISTORY 

BY 

ALBERT H. SANFORD, A. M., 

PROFESSOR OP HISTORY IN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LA CROSSE, WIS. 



I. Purposes in Teaching History 

1. Introduction. — The teacher who views his work 
intelligently is anxious to justify, to himself if not to 
others, every part of the course of study and every means 
that he uses to make his teaching effective. In the case 
of the "three It's," the purposes of which seem to be 
eminently practical, this justification is comparatively 
easy; but with history, the case is somewhat different. 
It is difficult to show that the study of history is directly 
connected with the business of getting a living. Conse- 
quently, he who would explain the value of this subject 
must deal with purposes that are less tangible or "prac- 
tical" and more purely intellectual. 

2. Imparting Information. — Let us begin with a very 
evident purpose of teaching history, that of imparting 
information. We have as our subject matter the most 
important facts in a country's career. To know these 



L UNITED STATES HISTORY 

is to be "well-informed" — an object worthy the ambi- 
tion of every boy and girl. Americans esteem themselves 
an intelligent people, in contrast with the ignorant and 
consequently the degraded peoples of some other coun- 
tries. Now, one element in the equipment of an intelli- 
gent person is knowledge of his country's history. The 
public speaker, whether on the platform or in the pul- 
pit, refers to its events to illustrate and enforce the argu- 
ment he is making. The newspaper contains every 
day some allusion to American history; writers in maga- 
zines and books constantly depend upon it for material. 
These facts are evidence that intelligent people are uni- 
versally supposed to possess a fund of information in 
this field. When boys and girls begin the study of 
history, therefore, they are entering the company of 
"the best people"; they are taking a step upward, rising 
to an equal station with the most intelligent, most 
esteemed and most influential men and women in all 
communities. 

3. Stimulating Patriotism. — A second reason for 
teaching the facts of history is to arouse the patriotism 
of pupils. What is our country? Does it consist solely 
of the tangible things about us — the land and its people, 
with all that has been constructed for purposes of busi- 
ness, comfort and pleasure? Or is there in our concep- 
tion of "the United States," for instance, an intangible 
element without which these things could never exist — 
the memory of great trials endured, of great deeds accom- 



GENERAL METHODS O 

plished? Love of country and pride in it are aroused 
not only by the physical possessions that we call ours, 
but even more by the knowledge that millions before us 
have labored and sacrificed to make these possible. 

There is a kind of false patriotism which spends its 
force in boasting; which attributes to the United States 
and its people all that is good and noble and denies to 
others the same high qualities; which finds our country 
right in every controversy, or which falls back upon the 
cry, "my country, right or wrong." Unfortunately, 
this type of patriotism not infrequently results from the 
study of history in the common schools. We shall agree, 
however, that an intelligent study of American history 
will not yield such results. A full appreciation of our 
country's history will arouse a deeper feeling of love for 
it than that which is satisfied by the loud and reckless 
boast, will reveal both the strength and the weakness of 
American character, will give to the student that most 
desirable quality, willingness to learn from the history 
of other peoples, and will aid him in distinguishing 
between the false and the true in national policy. 

There is a distinction which should be constantly 
remembered by the teacher and inculcated in the minds 
of pupils, between what may be designated as "fighting 
patriotism' ' and "civic patriotism." Nothing is easier 
than arousing the martial spirit, the inborn love of fight- 
ing, among any people; the pomp and display of armies 
appeals strongly to all men. It is entirely unnecessary 



4 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to expend effort in school in the cultivation of patriotism 
in this form. But there are overwhelming facts to prove 
that civic patriotism does not nourish as it should among, 
us. The exercise of this type of patriotism ordinarily 
calls for little display and brings less honor; it involves 
inconvenience and sacrifice. We find it among those 
citizens who are faithful in the discharge of their public 
duties — in their political parties they work to have good 
men placed in nomination; at the polls they vote for pub- 
lic and not for private or party interests; when called 
upon to hold office they are honest and zealous for the 
public welfare. These patriots do not shirk jury duty; 
they encourage officers in the enforcement of the law; 
they support heartily all means of public education and 
enlightenment. 

One of the best means of arousing this high and pure 
type of patriotism will be found in the teaching of his- 
tory. Here the pupil may learn what true freedom 
means and what it has cost; he may come to realize that 
his life is a part of that great stream of human effort 
which ever reaches towards better things. Such con- 
ceptions will give him the best possible incentive to exert 
himself, in his daily contact with other citizens, to keep 
our standards of public life high and to preserve our 
institutions from corruption. 

4. Developing the Mind. — The third purpose in the 
teaching of history is the development of the mind in 
certain directions. In this respect history is not different 



GENERAL METHODS 

from other studies. By education the mind acquires 
strength, agility and breadth. These qualities may be 
gained out of school, as the ability of many "self-made" 
men testifies; but most young persons would never acquire 
them without the aid of the school. The uneducated 
mind is capable of grasping and holding but few ideas; 
the study of history gives training in the acquisition of 
many facts and in the grouping of details into general 
statements. The man who is uneducated has his men- 
tal horizon bounded by the facts of his own and his 
neighbor's experience; in history he may study the experi- 
ences of past generations and thus have his life broad- 
ened and enriched by views of other scenes. Here, too, 
he has opportunity to compare one set of facts with 
another, and this calls for the exercise of judgment. 
The man of narrow views lacks the power of critical 
judgment; he is consequently unable to gain the confi- 
dence of his fellows, and he is given no opportunity to 
assume positions of responsibility in the business world 
or in social relations. To put the matter in its most 
general form, the study of history is one means by which 
the world and humanity are revealed to the young mind. 
5. Influencing Reading. — One of the best results of the 
study of history to the student should be the ability to 
enjoy the books that tell our country's story. Bright boys 
and girls need little encouragement to read interesting sto- 
ries — the great problem is, what shall they read? If the 
history class can lead them to the best books, it may 



6 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

avert the disaster that follows when trashy and unclean 
literature falls within their reach. It is believed that 
stories of true heroes and heroines and descriptions of 
noble deeds will appeal more strongly to healthy minds 
than the accounts of mock heroes and unreal characters 
that figure in cheap literature. 

II. The Use of the Text-Book 

6. The Proper Conception of the Text-Book.— There is 

such a thing as worship of the text-book among teach- 
ers, and there is also such a thing as- underestimation of 
its value. The true view lies between these extremes. 
In the first place, the teacher must recognize the fact that 
the book is not the history — the history was human 
experience. Secondly, he must know that the text does 
not contain all of the story. And, finally, he may dis- 
cover that some of the things told in the text-book are 
not true. With these propositions as a basis, the teacher 
may proceed to use the text as an aid to his pupils in 
learning some of the facts concerning our past history 
and in discovering more than it contains concerning 
these facts. The text-book is most useful because it 
holds within small compass, where they may be seen at 
a glance and hence more readily grasped by the mind, 
groups of important facts. Then, too, the statements 
of these facts are usually well-organized in paragraphs 
and chapters; thus the student may easily see their rela- 
tions and so better comprehend their significance. 



GENERAL METHODS / 

Let us cast aside at once the ancient conception that 
the body of statements contained in the text-book is to 
be transferred to the pupil's mind by mechanical effort 
of memory. When the pupil lives through a year on the 
farm, in the store or in the work-shop, he acquires a body 
of information concerning what happened during that 
time. Now, such a body of information is precisely 
what he should obtain from the study of history; only 
it will come to him in the words of historical writers and 
of the teacher, instead of through his own experience. 
Whether the pupil will remember "what happened," 
that is, the facts of history, will depend primarily upon 
his interest in them; his interest in the events will depend 
upon his understanding of them and upon the degree to 
which they become a part of his mental and emotional 
experience. 

Teachers seldom use the text-book wisely unless they 
understand the plan and purpose of the author and are 
familiar with the contents of the books. Every teacher 
owes it to himself and his class to make a thorough and 
systematic study of the text he is to use. This study 
should be from the teacher's point of veiw, not merely for 
the purpose of assigning lessons. What does the author 
consider worthy of the greatest emphasis in history? 
Following out his idea, has he placed greater stress upon 
this phase of the subject than the scope of his work will 
warrant? Compare his book with several others of similar 
scope on this point. What and where are the weak spots? 



8 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Is the work logically arranged? If not, how can the defect 
be remedied? These and numerous other questions should 
occur to the teacher in the course of his study. If they 
can be satisfactorily answered, he will be able to use the 
text with success. 

7. The Natural Sequence in Learning. — We have, there- 
fore, this necessary sequence in the process of acquiring 
the subject-matter of history; (1) to understand and 
appreciate what happened; (2) to become interested in it; 
(3) to remember it. As this is the proper logical order in 
the learning of history, the teacher's plans must all con- 
form to it if he would be successful. 

8. Assignment of the Lesson. — The importance of care- 
ful assignment is not generally understood; many teachers 
do not realize that half the troubles of the recitation can 
be avoided if the assignment is properly made. This 
involves (1) a statement showing which are the im- 
portant and which the unimportant parts of the les- 
son; (2) a warning concerning the most difficult passages 
— those to which the pupil should give careful attention; 
(3) questions about which the pupil is to think when 
studying his lesson; (4) the suggestion of a plan of organ- 
izing the facts of the lesson. Let us illustrate some of 
these points. The following paragraph may be included 
in the lesson assigned: 

"By the advice of Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, 
Congress agreed to assume the debts contracted by the states during 
the Revolution, and to pay the national debt in full. To provide 
funds, taxes were levied on imported goods and the distillation of 



GENERAL METHODS 9 

spirits. A mint and a national bank were established at Philadel- 
phia. By these measures the credit of the government was put upon 
a firm basis." 

The teacher should warn his class to consider carefully 
the meaning of the phrase, "assume the debts contracted 
by the states." Why were they contracted? Why 
should the national government assume them? Who 
contracted the national debt? What is the meaning of 
"distillation"? Do we have such taxes as these today? 
These measures may be more readily held in mind if 
pupils are told to make a list of them under the head, 
Hamilton's financial measures. 

The class studying this paragraph with such questions 
in mind is much less apt to memorize words without under- 
standing them than if the questions had not been asked. 
Furthermore, some of the questions are difficult, and if 
they are sprung suddenly upon the class they will dis- 
courage pupils who are unable to answer offhand. A 
great advantage will also be gained if, by the daily appli- 
cation of this plan of assignment, the pupils are led to 
acquire a questioning habit of study. They will then 
think of more questions for themselves, and if properly 
encouraged they will add life, interest and great profit 
to the recitation by asking thoughtful questions. 

The assignment of the lesson in the way suggested 
above takes time, but it is time saved instead of lost. 
This plan aids in bringing teacher and pupil to a common 
understanding as to the subject matter to be learned 
and as to the exact requirements of the recitation. 



10 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Much valuable time is wasted in recitation simply because 
teacher and pupils have not previously agreed upon the 
relative importance of different parts of the lesson. 

9. The Recitation from the Text.— If the lesson has 
been properly assigned, the character of the recitation 
has been to a great extent determined. The pupil who 
has studied his lesson with some of the questions stated 
above in mind will probably not attempt a parrot-like 
repetition of the words of the text. If he does, the sooner 
he is interrupted by the teacher, the better. The teach- 
er's main purpose in the recitation should be to ascertain 
whether the pupils understand what they are talking 
about — not, whether they remember. It may be asserted 
that if sufficient effort has been put forth to fully 
understand and appreciate the paragraph quoted above, 
then its principal statements will be remembered. 
Certainly, to remember without understanding them 
would be a positive injury to the pupil. 

The teacher may ascertain what the pupil knows by 
either of two methods. He may ask many questions, 
or he may direct the pupil to "tell about" Hamilton's 
financial measures. No argument is required to show 
the superiority of the latter, or topic, form of recitation. 
If it is the teacher's habit to call for such a recitation, 
the pupil will prepare for it; that is, he will master the 
paragraph as a whole, and will expect to make a contin- 
uous story of it when he recites. 

It should be noted that after a topical recitation has 



GENERAL METHODS 11 

been concluded the teacher will in most cases find it nec- 
essary to ask some pointed questions, in order to assure 
himself that the pupil understands the bearings of the 
facts that have been recited. Such questions will be 
especially necessary if in his recitation the pupil has 
used the language of the text-book. 

When this test of knowledge has been concluded, the 
interesting and profitable why questions will come — 
the most valuable part of the recitation. Here the 
pupil's interest may be aroused, boys especially being 
alert to find reasons for events and to trace results from 
them. Here, too, the teacher has opportunity to instruct 
the class upon points not mentioned in the text. 
He may ask questions concerning matters previously 
studied that are related to the day's lesson. Finally, he 
may make reference to conditions existing at the present 
time that serve to illustrate the statements in the lesson. 

It is evident that, pursuing this method, the teacher is 
not so much hearing as teaching the lesson. He care- 
fully corrects misconceptions; he asks for the repetition 
of difficult points by several members of the class; he 
stimulates thought and interest by the form of his ques- 
tions, and he brings freshness and reality into the recitation 
by illustration and amplification of the dry statements 
of fact in the text-book. 

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the char- 
acter of the recitation is determined by the method of 
the teacher in questioning, and this in turn can be deter- 



12 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

mined by the directions given to pupils when the 
assignment is made. If the lesson is assigned as a from 
page 16 to page 22," the pupil has no clew to the demands 
that will be made upon him in the recitation, except 
such a guess as his experience will enable him to make. 
Ii, on the other hand, he is plainly shown the main feat- 
ures of the task before him, his work will be intelligent 
and therefore more satisfactory. 

10. Study in the Recitation. — To some teachers the 
opening of a text-book during the recitation seems a 
desecration. But what is a more sensible or economical 
method of settling a dispute or clearing up a difficult 
point? In this way, too, pupils may be shown how they 
should have studied a lesson over which they have floun- 
dered. Resort to this expedient is less apt to be necessary, 
however, when the lesson has been properly assigned. 

III. The Use of Outlines 

11. The Relations of Events.— Every person of mature 
years recognizes that there are in his own life-history 
certain stages more or less clearly defined. Considering, 
in turn, infancy, childhood, youth and early manhood 
or womanhood, he finds that each period is marked by 
certain dominant influences and motives. 

In the same way, the events in the life of a people and 
the changing influences that prevail over it from time' 
to time enable the student to find the periods or stages 
of progress in a nation's history. Within any one period 



GENERAL METHODS 13 

the principal events of national history are closely related 
— otherwise they would not constitute a period. To learn 
the history of a period, then, the student must grasp sim- 
ultaneously (1) the facts concerning its main events 
and (2) the facts concerning the inter-relations of these 
events. If he learns merely the first and omits the sec- 
ond, he has acquired a body of facts which may constitute 
information (more or less useful), but which are not 
history in a true sense. Moreover, for most students, 
knowledge concerning the inter-relations of events is of 
great assistance in the effort to comprehend the truth 
concerning the events themselves. Persons of strong 
mechanical memory can readily learn isolated facts and 
can thus give an appearance of possessing considerable 
knowledge. But the great majority of students grasp 
and hold historical information in proportion as they 
see the relations between its parts. 

12. Characteristics of a Good Outline.— We have 
stated above a simple explanation of the principle upon 
which the history is divided into periods; and it is upon 
the basis of this principle that the construction of outlines 
must proceed. Enough has been said to render tolerably 
clear the following propositions: 

1. No outline can be properly made until we see the 
relations of the facts that are involved. 

2. The completed outline should aid in the grasping 
of these relations; but the outline should be the result 
and not the source of this knowledge. 



14 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



3. It follows, therefore, that an outline serves its best 
use while it is being made. 

4. The outline is an aid to memory and is helpful 
in reviews; but if it is memorized without being first 
understood the result is positively harmful to the stu- 
dent. He has acquired nothing that is of value, and 
may deceive both himself and the teacher as to the 
extent of his real knowledge. 

13. Typical Outlines. — (1) A good example of an 
outline based upon chronological order is found in a 
simple list of explorers. The outline that follows pre- 
sents not only the chronological list, but also a sub- 
division into groups according to nationality. 





SPANISH 


ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


1500 


Columbus 1492 


Cabot 1497 




1550 


1502 
DeLeon 1513 Balboa 
Cortez 1520 Magellan 

DeSoto 1540 Coronado 




Verrazano 1524 
Cartier 1534 


1600 


Menendez 1565 

St. Augustine, Fla. 


Hawkins 1560 
Frobisher 1576 

Drake 1577 
Gilbert's and _ 1578 : 
Raleigh's colonies : : 
1591 1590 


Huguenot colonies 


1650 




Jamestown, Va. 1607 


Champlain 1603 
Quebec 1608 : 

Nicolet 1634 16 jj- 


1700 






Marquette and 

Joliet 1673 

La Salle 1679 
1681 



GENERAL METHODS 15 

Another feature of this outline is the exact division 
of the space according to half-centuries. This enables 
pupils to grasp certain relations that could not be made 
visible to the eye in any other arrangement. In the 
Spanish column, for instance, it shows an apparent ces- 
sation of exploring activity after the date 1565. In the 
English column it reveals the long period (sixty years 
or more) of inactivity in American exploration. Again, 
in the French column, there is a gap of a like number 
of years at a different time. The outline should be of 
distinct assistance in impressing upon pupils' minds the 
dates when these explorers did their work. Drake's 
voyages are plainly seen to have been made three-quar- 
ters of a century after the time of Cabot's voyage. It 
may be truly said that this fact is of little importance 
unless a reason for it can be found. Here, then, may 
be displayed one of the chief purposes of history teach- 
ing. Will the making of this outline showing the gap 
in the history of English exploration arouse the pupil's 
curiosity? Will he be impelled to ask questions con- 
cerning the reasons involved? Will the teacher join 
with the class in searching for an explanation? 

The form of chart under discussion aids in impressing 
the idea that two or more series of events happened during 
the same period of time, instead of in chronological suc- 
cession. The text-book discussion treats events accord- 
ing to their logical grouping rather than according to 
the strict chronological order of their occurrence. Thus, 



16 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



pupils are apt to get the idea that after all the thirteen 
English colonies had been settled the French began 
their explorations. The outline given above will show 
that Champlain and John Smith were contemporaneous; 
that while the former was searching for a way to the 
Pacific along the waterways of Canada, the latter 
was pushing up the streams of Virginia intent upon the 
same discovery. An addition to the chart would make 
it include the name of Henry Hudson, whose voyage up 
the Hudson River was impelled by the same motive and 
occurred at the same time. 

(2) Another form of outline, ignoring chronology 
entirely and presenting merely a comparison of condi- 
tions that existed at a certain time, is illustrated below. 
In this classification of the English colonies, we com- 
pare the types of colonial government existing in the 
year 1760. 



FORM OF GOVERNMENT 

Royal — New Hampshire, 
New York, Xew Jersey, 
Massachusetts, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia. 

Proprietary — Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware, Maryland. 

Republican — Rhode Is- 
land, Connecticut. 



GOVERNOR 

Appointed by 
the king. 



Appointed by 
the proprietor. 

Elected by the 
people. 



ASSEMBLY 

Elected by the peo- 
ple. 



Elected by the peo- 
ple. 

Elected by the peo- 
ple. 



This outline will be made by pupils after a study of 
the colonies separately. It shows the important points 
of difference and the striking point of similarity in their 
governments. 






GENERAL METHODS 17 

(3) A third type of outline is intended to show, 
by grouping certain facts together, how an idea or an 
institution has developed. The progress of the spirit 
of union during the Revolutionary period may be out- 
lined in this form: 

1. The Albany Congress, 1754. 

2. The Stamp Act Congress, 1765. 

3. Non-importation agreements, 1767. 

4. Committees of Correspondence, 1772-1773. 

5. First Continental Congress, 1774. 

6. Second Continental Congress, 1775-1781. 

7. Articles of Confederation, 1781-1789. 

8. The Constitution, 1789. 

Of course, this outline is a mere skeleton, containing 
but a few of the items that might be included under 
this head. Its purpose is to emphasize the inter-rela- 
tions that exist between certain events. It is one of 
the most important facts in American history that the 
establishment of a single strong central government was 
the result of a gradual process that included many pain- 
ful steps. The history of the adoption of the Constitu- 
tion loses all its significance if this fact is neglected. 

(4) The recurrence of a fundamental idea in different 
forms or under different conditions may frequently be 
shown in an outline, with great profit to the pupil. For 
instance, the grouping of Daniel Boone with Lewis and 
Clark displays the process of pioneer discovery more clearly 
than if these explorers were treated without reference 
to each other. Likewise, the military expedition of 
George Rogers Clark may be grouped with that of 



18 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Fremont as fundamentally similar. The following events 
also belong logically together: 

1. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798. 

2. Hartford Convention, 1814. 

3. South Carolina Nullification Act, 1832. 

4. Acts of Secession, 1860-1861. 

In the history of the westward movement of popula- 
tion the following topics stand in close logical relation : 

1 . The Cumberland Road. 

2. The steamboat. 

3. The Erie Canal. 

4. Railroad extension. 

14. The Time for Making Outlines. — The teacher 
should employ outlines whenever they will be useful. 
In most cases, an outline is best made during the 
recitation, when, with crayon in hand, the teacher leads 
the class to work out the sub-heads step by step. The 
process of constructing an outline may last but a few 
minutes, or it may occupy the recitations of several 
days; but in every case it should be a product, in large 
part, of the student's activity in thinking upon the 
relations of the facts studied in one or more lessons. 
When the result is a genuine achievement of the class, 
it possesses much more value and excites much more 
interest than if it were given bodily to the class by the 
teacher. In fact, the latter practice would be useless, 
or even harmful. The opposite extreme in method, that 
of asking pupils to work out their outlines entirely 
unaided, would in most cases discourage them with the 
difficulty of the task. 



GENERAL METHODS 19 

15. Conclusion. — It cannot be too strongly emphasized, 
in conclusion, that information concerning events in his- 
tory is not adequate knowledge of history; comprehen- 
sion of the relations existing between events is essential. 
The outline is an aid in the grasping of these inter- 
relations; it is to be used, not as an end in itself, but as 
a means towards the comprehension and memorizing of 
the facts of history. 

IV. Reviews 

16. An Aid to Memory.— As the work in the construc- 
tion of outlines aims principally to assist pupils in under- 
standing history, so review exercises are mainly intended 
to aid in the memorizing of facts. Yet both objects should 
be held in mind in both kinds of work; for the outline 
presents the subject matter in a form that is more readily 
memorized, and much of the effort in review should be 
directed towards testing the pupil's grasp, rather than 
merely his remembrance, of the facts. The latter point 
is seen to be especially important when we recall the 
principles already insisted upon — that memory is based 
chiefly upon understanding, and that the practice of 
memorizing facts before they are understood should be 
discouraged as a thoroughly harmful one. Consequently, 
no review exercise should degenerate into a mere mem- 
ory test. The students who readily memorize subject 
matter which they comprehend only superficially should 
not be given the opportunity to outshine their fellows, 
who, with less active memories, are yet more deserving. 



20 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

17. A Test of Knowledge. — The best way in which to 
test whether a student's knowledge is vital rather than 
superficial is to ask him to make new combinations of 
the facts that he has learned. An extremely simple 
illustration of this device is the following: Pupils are 
required to learn the names of the presidents in their 
proper order, as they pass through the history of the 
administrations. In review, they should not only be 
expected to repeat this list, but they should also be asked 
such questions as these: Who was president before 
Jackson? Who after Madison? Who followed Pierce? 
— the questions coming rapidly and in any order. 
Again, by requiring pupils in review to make a compar- 
ison, their real grasp of the facts will be revealed. For 
example, the principles held by the first Republican party 
during Washington's administration may be compared 
with those upon which their measures were based during 
the administrations of Madison and Monroe. Causal 
relations should be the subject of review quite as fre- 
quently as mere lists of events and their dates. Of such 
a nature are the following: Why did the British evac- 
uate Boston in 1776? What event led to the passing of 
the retaliatory or intolerable acts by Parliament in 1774? 
Why did France aid the United States during the Revo- 
lution? 

18. Typical Reviews. — The several types of review 
exercises that follow should be employed at different 
times, as each has certain points of excellence. 









GENERAL METHODS 21 

(1) Almost every recitation should open with a five 
or ten minute exercise in which the teacher gives a rapid 
fire of short, sharp questions. Many of these may be 
answered by one word, such as a date, a name or a 
brief sentence. For example, in studying the Civil 
War period, these may be review questions; When was 
Lincoln elected? What was his party? When was 
this party organized? What was its leading principle? 
Who was its first presidential candidate? Was he 
elected? A moment's hesitation in answering any of 
these questions should count as a failure and the ques- 
tion should be passed on immediately. Such a quiz 
should cover especially the last few lessons, but it may 
be extended to the more prominent facts of the entire 
period previously studied. The class should be thor- 
oughly awake and attentive as a result of this brief 
review. 

(2) In connection with the discussion of many topics 
there may be review questions based upon events of a 
similar nature that have been studied previously. 
When the acquisition of Mexican territory is under dis- 
cussion, the earlier annexations may well be reviewed 
very briefly. When the story of Gettysburg has been 
told, ask for facts about Lee's first invasion of the north 
and its result. When secession is being considered, 
these questions may be asked: Had South Carolina 
shown a rebellious spirit before? When? Over what 
questions? Who was president then? Compare the 



22 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

attitude of Jackson on that occasion with that of Buchanan 
in 1860-1861. In many cases the events to be reviewed 
in this way have a direct causal connection with the one 
immediately under discussion. 

(3) As far as possible, the topic should be regarded 
as the unit in history work. It is evident that some 
topics involve a greater element of reasoning and require 
more careful thought and statement than others which 
may be held in mind by sheer force of memory. It will 
soon be discovered that the latter topics are more readily 
reviewed than the former, because they are generally 
capable of clear, brief statement. When, however, a 
topic that involves the relations of many facts has once 
been thrown into the form of an outline, we have some- 
thing which can be reviewed without great thought or 
laborious statement. The black-board review of out- 
lines, such as those developed in the preceding chapter, 
should therefore be a prominent feature of all class 
work. Almost every day a few pupils should be sent to 
the black-board and assigned the task of writing these 
outlines from memory while the rest of the class recite 
the advance lesson. When the outlines are finished, 
they should be read and discussed by the class. 

(4) When any considerable number of students 
find some portion of the subject matter especially diffi- 
cult, this may be announced as a "review topic." A 
list of these review topics should be kept, and each should 
be carefully written up in the pupils' note-books after 



GENERAL METHODS 23 

it has been thoroughly discussed. Then let it be under- 
stood that at any time the teacher may call for a written 
recitation upon one or more of these topics. 

An example of the last form of topic may be found in 
the causes and results of tobacco culture in colonial Vir- 
ginia. This matter is seldom treated fully in texts, and 
it consequently gives excellent opportunity for the inde- 
pendent exercise of the students' reasoning powers. 
Among the reasons why tobacco culture came to be the 
one great industry of Virginia may be cited the following : 

a. Climate, b. The nature of the soil. c. The water- 
ways, giving easy access to the new lands of the inte- 
rior, d. Cheap labor — indentured servants and slaves. 
e. The great demand for tobacco in Europe and the con- 
sequent high prices. 

More or less directly resulting from this industry were 
the following conditions: 

a. The large plantation system, b. The absence of 
cities, c. The growth of the planter class, an aristocracy. 
d. The increase of slavery. 

When such a topic has once been fully worked out in 
class, it should be reviewed on the following day, and 
upon occasions thereafter, by having the outline placed 
upon the black-board. 

(5) Drill exercises should form a part of the review work 
of history classes, though they will not be so prominent 
in this as in some other subjects. The names of places 
or events, with the dates associated with them, form the 



24 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

most convenient source of drill exercises. Sometimes 
a succession of dates marking the occurrence of important 
events may be similarly treated. For example, the dates 
1765, 1766, 1767, 1768, 1770, 1773, 1774, may each stand for 
an important phase of the pre-Revolutionary discussion, 

19. Dates. — Probably no question in the teaching of his- 
tory has been more discussed than this : How many dates 
should pupils be required to learn? Yet, of itself, this 
question has little importance, and the more thoroughly 
the teacher enters into the spirit and method of true his- 
tory teaching, the less important it becomes in his mind. 
A good teacher throws his entire energy into the work 
of interesting his pupils and aiding them to understand 
what they are studying; he is not so anxious how much 
they will remember as how much they will know of the sub- 
ject. He is certain, moreover, that if his pupils do under- 
stand and become interested, they will remember the 
important events with the proper dates. It would cer- 
tainly be of no use for the pupil to remember any other 
dates than these. 

The question of dates, then, becomes subordinate, and 
to a great degree it takes care of itself. Every intelligent 
teacher will be glad to have every other teacher of his- 
tory decide the matter for himself. 

V. The Use of Supplementary Reading 

20. Utility of Supplementary Reading.— Within recent 
years a new element has been made prominent in history 



GENERAL METHODS 25 

courses — so prominent that wide-awake and progressive 
teachers find it necessary to recognize its utility and 
value. This is the use by both teacher and pupil of 
other books besides the text. 

The first reason for the use of supplementary materials 
is that the text-book is only a summary, or outline, of 
events. Now, the account of any occurrence in our own 
time and neighborhood is considered satisfactory in 
proportion as its details are given. How irritating it is 
when the bearer of interesting news either cannot or will 
not tell all of the story — precisely how, when and where 
the incident occurred, who were the persons concerned, 
what each one said, how certain ones were dressed, etc., 
etc. This hunger for details is easily explained; we desire 
to form a mental picture, and details are necessary to 
make the picture vivid and complete. 

We shall agree, then, that in learning history we en- 
deavor to reproduce the scenes of past times with the 
greatest degree of accuracy. It follows, therefore, that 
much of the study of history from text-books is not the 
learning of history at all, but rather the memorizing of 
words and phrases. Here lies one explanation for the 
lack of interest found in so many history classes; for most 
pupils the learning of detached formulas is not an attrac- 
tive task. 

Supplementary books aid in the reproduction of his- 
torical scenes, (1) when they describe the appearance and 
the personality of the actors, (2) when they picture the 



26 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

places where events occurred and (3) when they furnish 
explanation for the motives of historical characters and 
show in detail the results of events. The majority ol 
pupils who cannot "remember" history have never had 
clear mental pictures of the events. Supplementary 
reading, by supplying the materials that are necessary 
to arouse interest, gives, at the same time, the best stim- 
ulus to memory. 

The benefits derived from the use of supplementary books 
are not confined to the years of school life. The training 
which is thus given to the historical imagination bears 
fruit in mature years, when busy men and women find 
pleasure and relief in the continued reading of historical 
literature. Few acquire the taste for such reading who 
have not begun it in early years, and few possess it as a 
result of the study of text-books alone. 

21. Essentials in Supplementary Reading. — (1) First, 
get the books. If the law authorizes their purchase, the 
school authorities must be induced to expend the money. 
The teacher's personal responsibility at this point should 
not be overlooked. 

(2) Get the right books. In selecting books the teacher 
should depend upon his own knowledge of their adapt- 
ability to his class and upon the advice of competent 
judges. The purchase of books merely from their titles 
is quite certain to result in disappointment. The only 
legitimate test for a book intended for the school library 
is, Can the pupils profitably use it? This involves a con- 



GENERAL METHODS 27 

sideration of its contents as well as its expense; but it 
may be safely asserted that usually the supplementary 
history books which pupils will use most freely are quite 
inexpensive. 

(3) The teacher himself must be an appreciative reader 
of the books. This will enable him to teach pupils how 
to handle a book and how to find in it, by means of the 
index and table of contents, certain passages or parts of 
the story. The teacher's familiarity with books will aid 
pupils in overcoming any reluctance in their use. Many 
students whose home environment has not been favorable 
will need the stimulus of example before they will freely 
handle books and readily find in them the desired infor- 
mation. More than this, the example set when the teacher 
brings to the class the results of his own reading is of first 
importance. He may then show how his knowledge has 
been made vital, how his interest has been quickened and 
his pleasure heightened, by this work with supplemen- 
tary books. If, by telling the class what he has read, he 
arouses their desire to secure the same results, he has fur- 
nished the proper basis for supplementary reading. 

(4) The teacher should not rely solely upon example 
but should employ every aid possible to assist pupils in 
the use of books. Beginners in history need something 
more than a mere direction to "find the books/' or even 
to find a particular book, upon some topic. They can 
be greatly helped by exact page references to the passages 
which the teacher knows to be valuable. The teacher 



28 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

who can find time to give even a few books such close 
examination as to select valuable portions in this way, 
will be repaid by better results when pupils report upon 
their reading in the recitation. 

(5) The teacher should remember that pupils differ 
greatly in their desire and their ability to use books. 
Some, whose home training and natural aptitudes lead 
them in the right direction, need no inducement and lit- 
tle guidance. Others must be interested and carefully 
directed; these are the students who most need the read- 
ing and for whom the training it gives will be most bene- 
ficial. In assigning particular references to these pupils, 
the teacher should aim to have the character of the book 
and the topic suited to the individual who is to use it. 
Much discouragement may otherwise be the result. 

(6) While at times it may be the best policy simply 
to place a book in the hands of the student, trusting that 
its inherent attractiveness will arouse his interest, and 
expecting no other result, yet, as a rule, the teacher should 
expect some definite report upon the pupil's reading. 
The students who take readily to this work will be quite 
as anxious to tell what they have read as they were to 
find it. Their reports will be given voluntarily. Other 
students will need to be reminded that the results of the 
reading should appear in class, and it may even be neces- 
sary to show them beforehand exactly what facts should 
be recited. In either case, the teacher should assure him- 
self that not only the pupil who reports, but also the 



GENERAL METHODS 29 

other members of the class, acquire a clear and definite 
addition to their stock of information. A careless or 
muddled report from supplementary reading may bring 
confusion of mind to the entire class. Students should 
be directed to find in their reading not merely a confir- 
mation of what they already know, but, particularly, new 
facts and those that help explain the events of history. 
Their natural curiosity should be constantly stimulated 
by questions and by hints of possible interesting discov- 
eries; then their attitude of mind towards the matter 
they read will be that of the investigator who is searching 
for new light, and this will be the best guarantee of a 
good report to the class. 

22. Conclusion. — The up-to-date teacher looks upon 
the library as an essential part of the school; he finds 
that the use of books is of such utility to the student tnat 
he is not willing to dispense with them. If the library 
does not contain certain books that are much desired, 
his own meager earnings may furnish them; for he real- 
izes that the lifeblood of his subject flows through these 
books, while the text alone can furnish to his pupils but 
the dry bones of information. 

VI. Teaching Cause and Effect 

23. Why Causes and Effects should be Considered. 

— We take it for granted that behind every act of our 
neighbors there is an adequate reason — whether we think 
it a good reason or not — and the passing of judgment upon 



30 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

their behavior is a source of no little satisfaction to us. 
Such being the natural tendency of the human mind, is 
it not strange that the actions of men who lived in other 
times are often studied with little or no reference to their 
reasonableness? As in the previous chapter we noted 
the natural human demand for vivid details, so now we 
find a similar natural demand for reasons. 

The omission of the element of cause and effect in the 
study of history is one explanation of its lack of attract- 
iveness, especially for boys. There is no kind of ques- 
tions which will make the boy nature respond so quickly 
as this: "Why do you suppose they did that?" The 
boy, with his lower power of mechanical memory, depends, 
more than the girl does, upon his ability to see the reasons 
for events. In fact, it is quite impossible in most cases 
to arouse his interest if this phase of history is neglected. 

24. Illustrations of Causes and Effects. — 1. Explo- 
ration. — In the history of early American exploration 
the reasons why certain men made their voyages, or the 
reasons why they explored where they did, are not made 
sufficiently prominent in most text-books. 

Take, for example, Drake, who "sailed around the 
world." (a) The statement of his main motive, the 
plundering of Spanish vessels, in itself needs explana- 
tion. Why should he do this? Were England and Spain 
at war? Not openly. Then, why were they enemies? 
Chiefly for a reason which in this day we find it hard to 
realize, namely, they differed in religion, (b) Drake's 



GENERAL METHODS 31 

voyage along the western coast of South America has 
a simple explanation; there, distant from the center 
of Spanish activity and hence safe from the attacks of 
Spanish vessels, he might peacefully rob the rich treas- 
ure ships that sailed from Peru to the Isthmus of Panama, 
(c) But why, having completed his work, did he sail as 
far north as California? Simply because he hoped to 
find a way home around the northern end of North Amer- 
ica and thus to avoid his Spanish enemies, who, he knew, 
must by this time be lying in wait for him along the 
route by which he came, (d) Why, then, did he sail 
around the globe? Because of his discouragement in 
not finding the northern route for which he was search- 
ing, and his belief that this would be the safest way to 
England. 

So, for every explorer we might find, by studying far 
enough, the reasons, simple or complex, for his partic- 
ular achievements. 

2. Navigation Acts. — Pupils are accustomed to 
learn the principal provisions of the Navigation Acts 
without inquiring into the exact reasons for their enact- 
ment; often, indeed, they are allowed to assume that 
these acts were wholly detrimental to colonial interests, 
without inquiry as to their precise effects. 

Take, for example, the requirement that colonial trade 
with foreign countries should be carried on in English 
or colonial vessels. Only when we realize that this law 
was a blow struck at the Dutch ship-owners and mer- 



32 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

chants do we find a sufficient motive for it. The Dutch, 
the greatest maritime nation of Europe at the middle 
of the seventeenth century, were rivals of the English, 
and the latter determined to get this profitable business 
away from them. Notice, however, that colonial vessels 
were allowed to engage in this trade — a provision dis- 
tinctly advantageous to New England, where it had a 
stimulating effect upon the industries of ship-building 
and commerce. 

If students are given but a few of the facts involved 
in such matters, they may reason out for themselves 
the correct conclusions. For example: Who would be 
benefited by that provision of the Navigation Acts under 
which colonial tobacco, rice and indigo must be shipped 
to England only? What effect would the enforcement 
of this law have upon the colonial producers? Reason 
similarly concerning the law requiring that all foreign 
productions should come to the colonies through Eng- 
lish ports. 

The teacher should clearly realize that the value of 
knowing about the Navigation Acts consists chiefly in 
the student's being able to understand just why they 
were enacted and just how they affected the different 
parties concerned. If these matters are neglected, there 
is little profit in studying the topic at all. 

3. The Retaliatory Acts of 1774. — Another exam- 
ple, taken from the same period of history, will serve 
further to illustrate how the chief point of an event con- 



GENERAL METHODS 33 

sists in seeing the reason for it and its results. We learn 
that one of the "retaliatory" or "intolerable" acts of 1774 
"closed the port of Boston"; often students are allowed 
to repeat that phrase glibly in recitation without being 
questioned as to its meaning or the consequences that 
followed it. If no ships could enter or leave Boston har- 
bor who would be affected? The merchants of the city? 
Certainly; for, if they could not import or export goods, 
their profits would cease. The ship-owners? Yes, for 
they could earn no freight. The sailors and the dock- 
hands? Yes, for they could earn no wages. The people 
of Boston in general? Certainly; they would in that 
case have to pay higher prices as the supply of some 
commodities became limited. Thus it was that the Brit- 
ish government undertook to punish the city of Boston. 
But it is impossible for the student to grasp the point or 
to make the text-book statement anything more than 
a phrase, unless he sees in imagination all the consequen- 
ces which have just been mentioned and realizes their 
effect upon the people of Boston. 

25. Deceptive Reasoning.— Very often pupils are 
allowed to deceive themselves into thinking that they 
know causes and effects when they do not, being unable 
to trace the links that connect either of these to the event. 
In the last illustration, a pupil may speak of the "Boston 
Port Bill" as a "punishment," and yet he may be unable 
to show exactly how it was a punishment. In this case, 
the history lesson has wrought upon his mind a distinct 



34 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

injury. He is acquiring a loose habit of thinking; he is 
being trained in self-deception, and, if he realizes his lack 
of understanding, he plays the hypocrite. Is it strange 
that after "education" of this type he falls victim in later 
life to patent medicine quacks, religious fads, financial 
crazes and weather prediction nonsense? The school, 
instead of teaching him to reason from cause to effect, 
has taught him to accept statements on authority and 
without questioning. 

A very common illustration of this point is found in 
the statement that "the invention of the cotton-gin caused 
an increase of slavery." How many students are called 
upon to trace out carefully the steps that lie hidden be- 
tween the event and its ultimate effect? 

26. A Restriction. — At this point it may be well to raise 
the question, Should students be asked to learn about 
any important event for the occurrence of which no rea- 
son is assigned, or for which no reason can be given that 
is within their power to comprehend? We are inclined 
to answer this question in the negative. This does not 
imply that pupils in elementary classes will understand, 
the first time they study it, all the causes of an event or 
even the most important causes in their fulness. But 
we do maintain that to learn such a statement as "The 
United States purchased Louisiana in 1803" and to leave 
the topic without any reason having been given for this 
great event, is not only a profitless but a harmful exer- 
cise. It requires a mind of extraordinary strength to 



GENERAL METHODS 35 

survive this kind of treatment. Again, shall the pupil 
learn that in 1823 President Monroe proclaimed the fa- 
mous "Monroe doctrine," without being given some facts 
concerning the conditions that seemed to make the 
announcement necessary? If he is incapable of grasp- 
ing the causes of this event, is it not too early in his 
progress for him to deal with the event at all? 

27. History, a Series of Problems. — It is quite a false 
view to regard history as a "memory study" and to place 
it in contrast with arithmetic, which is supposed to require 
more "reasoning." It is quite as necessary to reason 
as to remember in the study of history. In fact, properly 
considered, history is a series of problems. 

America is to be discovered — by what process shall 
this be done? It is to be explored — who shall undertake 
the work and what regions shall they visit? Such are 
the initial problems in American history, and these are 
followed by a greater one. Here, in the new world, is 
virgin soil fit to be the home of great peoples. What tra- 
ditions of society and government shall be planted here? 

Other great problems in American colonial history are 
these : 

(1) What were the forces at work to separate some of 
the English colonies from the mother country, while others 
remained loyal to the home government and were among 
its ardent supporters? 

(2) When the independence of the thirteen colonies 
was secured, did this necessarily involve their union under 



36 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

one government; or would not the previous experience 
of mankind lead us to expect the formation of several 
rival nations? The fact that we have here real, rather 
than fanciful, problems, may be impressed if we ask, 
How would French domination in America have changed 
its history? How would we be governed today if we were 
under English rule? What would have been the results 
had there been formed three independent nations instead 
of one? 

Of course, these questions cannot be definitely answered. 
We shall never know what "might have been." But 
their consideration can aid us in realizing that what did 
happen in such a case was only one of several possibili- 
ties which might affect the character of our nation. 

VII. Interpreting History by Experience 
28. Experience an Aid in Interpretation. — It has 

doubtless become apparent in the course of this discus- 
sion that there is a close connection between the finding 
of causes and results and the use of supplementary books 
in history. For, to understand the causes and the results 
of a historical event we must know its details, and only 
the books can supply them. By the side of this impor- 
tant fact should stand another of equal consequence, 
namely, the understanding of many topics depends not 
only upon the detailed facts that can be learned from 
books, but also upon the fund of experience that may be 
in the possession of the learner. 






GENERAL METHODS 37 

Let us illustrate this point. The text-book tells how, 
before the American Revolution, colonial officials endeav- 
ored to enforce the Navigation Acts by the use of "Writs 
of Assistance." These writs authorized officers to search 
houses for smuggled goods. Now, what was the precise 
ground of opposition to the use of these writs? Was it 
that the concealment of goods held in violation of the 
law should not be a subject of investigation, and that in 
such investigation the officers might not search private 
houses? If the student's experience extends widely 
enough, he has personal knowledge of officers doing now, 
under the authority of "se arch- warrants," the very thing 
complained of by the colonists. The opposition of the 
colonists lay, then, in the difference between the two 
writs mentioned. This point can only be made clear by 
an examination of the language of the two warrants; the 
writ of assistance did not contain the exact description 
of the place to be searched or of the goods to be seized. 
The teacher should have a blank form of search-warrant 
to display in class, as a tangible backing for the true 
understanding of the topic, and he should complete the 
explanation by reference to Amendment IV of the United 
States Constitution and to the parallel clause of the state 
constitution. 

Another topic, more difficult than the one last dis- 
cussed, is that of the United States Bank. Pupils may 
learn, more or less readily, the text-book account of this 
institution in either of its terms of existence; but their 



38 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

comprehension of it will depend upon the extent to which 
their experience has brought them into contact with act- 
ual things of the same nature as those discussed. For 
instance, the bank was " chartered," having a " capital" 
of so many dollars, with " directors," some of whom rep- 
resented the United States government. Is there within 
the range of the pupil's observation a corporation which 
will furnish the necessary illustrative material upon which 
an understanding of these technical terms may be based? 
If not, the attempt to learn and use the terms is quite 
futile. If pupils have some acquaintance with the workings 
of a bank, they may readily comprehend other terms 
used in this discussion, " deposits," " circulation," " redemp- 
tion," etc. If their previous experience gives them no 
grasp of these terms, the pupils should be assisted by the 
teacher and encouraged to gain information from par- 
ents and friends who are familiar with ordinary banking 
operations. 

Closely related to this topic and requiring similar treat- 
ment is our currency. But few pupils know the differ- 
ence between a " greenback," a "silver certificate" and a 
"gold certificate;" or the difference between United States 
treasury notes and national bank notes. The teacher who 
instructs topically will show when the class is studying the 
United States Bank, the relation of that bank to the money 
system of its day, and will show also how, as the bank 
led to the sub-treasury plan, so the treasury in time came 
back to a closer touch with the people, and lent its aid 



GENERAL METHODS 39 

to local banks in issuing currency, and in so doing placed 
that currency on a par with that issued by the govern- 
ment. With a mature class the revenue feature of the 
national bank plan can also be discussed, if the teacher 
deems it advisable. 

29. Immature Pupils. — If the point here made is a 
legitimate one, it follows that such a subject as the United 
States Bank should not be studied by pupils who are too 
immature to have some real grasp of the business of 
banking. Time spent upon a subject that is beyond the 
range of their experience had much better be spent upon 
clarifying and supplementing some of the simpler topics 
in American history. Students will enjoy and profit by 
this study in proportion as they find themselves dealing 
with realities, instead of with abstractions and mys- 
teries. 

30. Events of Today.— Following the principle last 
stated, it becomes the teacher's duty to tie the subjects 
treated in the history lesson, wherever possible, to the 
world of today. Is the tariff of 1816 or that of 1832 under 
discussion? Then it is not only appropriate, but essen- 
tial, if the element of reality is to be prominent in the 
history class, to ask, Have we duties on imported goods 
today? On what goods? Why? How are duties col- 
lected? Who pays them? Do these duties affect us in 
any way? What tariff law is in effect today? Is it a 
revenue tariff solely or a protective tariff? In what year 
was the present law passed? 



40 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

The "Whisky Insurrection" of 1794 will be a far-away 
topic and may have no real connection with the student's 
life and experience unless we ask, Are internal revenue 
taxes collected today? Upon what goods? By whom? 
Who has seen the revenue stamps? Do people today 
object to the payment of the tax? 

The paper money of the Revolutionary War and that 
of Civil War times finds ample illustration in the actual 
paper money of today, which may be brought into class 
to have its language read and explained. The Stamp 
Act of 1765 cannot be adequately treated without men- 
tion of the Stamp Act of 1898. 

The story of Magellan's discovery of the Philippine 
Islands should bring out the question, Who owns those 
islands today? The Spanish- American people of Mexico 
and South America, the French people of Canada and 
the French names upon our maps should all serve as con- 
necting links between the past and the present. The 
mind must have a roadway upon which to travel back 
to the past; and the only path is that supplied by pres- 
ent knowledge and by accumulated experience. If, then, 
history is studied as detached or isolated from the world 
of actual knowledge and experience, it is words and not 
realities that are being learned, and the study is unprof- 
itable. 

31. Pictures and Material Objects. — The wide-awake 
teacher is ever on the lookout for pictures and tangible 
objects with which to increase the pupils' fund of knowl- 



GENERAL METHODS 41 

edge and experience. An old spinning-wheel serves to 
vivify colonial history. Old coins aid pupils in realizing 
that mysterious past of which their dates speak. Indian 
relics are valuable, and old newspapers grow more pre- 
cious every year. All of these and many more objects 
may serve to equip a little historical museum which will 
grow in the school with astonishing rapidity when once 
started. Civil War veterans will add their loans and 
contributions of bullets, "shinplasters" and paper car- 
tridges. All of these things aid in that resurrection of 
the past which we call the study of history. 

VIII. Training the Judgment 

32. An Aid to Judgment. — It is not necessary, after 
traversing the ground of the previous chapters, to dem- 
onstrate the fact that the study of history calls for the 
exercise of judgment. It is not sufficiently recognized 
by teachers, however, that judgment depends in large 
measure upon the ability to imagine. Since it is through 
imagination that we see clearly the events of the past, 
and since this clear vision depends upon a knowledge of 
details, we may therefore conclude that any judgment 
to be worthy of the name must be preceded by an ade- 
quate presents Lion of the topic in hand. Snap judg- 
ments and those based upon insufficient data are not 
only valueless, but harmful. Historical study should do 
nothing to strengthen the tendency of man to judge pre- 
maturely, but should rather stimulate the spirit of inves- 



42 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

tigation, without which no basis for judgment can be 
secured. 

In calling for judgments from the history class, the 
teacher should be careful (1) to present adequate grounds 
upon which to base an opinion, and (2) to avoid being 
arbitrary, rather allowing for that difference of opinion 
which is inevitable among people who really think. Orig- 
inality of view on the part of any pupil is admirable, 
provided it be sane and backed by sound reasons. 

33. Causes and Results. — Judgment is called for in the 
search for causes and results. There must be a fitness 
and consistency existing between the fact which we are 
learning and its antecedents and consequences. The 
sequence of events is rational, because we are studying 
the history of rational beings, and not that of the insane, 
whose actions bear towards each other no such relation. 
The young mind, prone to wander and to leave gaps in 
its logical processes where there should be none, is greatly 
benefited by tracing carefully this sequence of cause and 
effect. If, however, as previously pointed out, the author- 
ity of teacher or text-book is substituted for this careful 
tracing of relations, there is no training of judgment, but, 
rather, the fostering of wrong mental habits. The stu- 
dent who learns the statement that "the Erie Canal 
caused New York City to grow in population" will derive 
no benefit from his knowledge unless he actually traces 
out the chain of causation. One of the greatest sources 
of error in human judgment consists in assuming that 



GENERAL METHODS 43 

because one event followed another it was therefore the 
result of the first. If the history class can do anything 
towards breaking down the tendency to frame these 
loose judgments, it will be doing a great service to 
students. 

Attention has been called to the fact that in the study 
of history there is nearly, if not quite, as much call for 
the exercise of reasoning as in the study of mathematics. 
We may go farther and say that the former subject gives 
opportunity for the exercise of a much more valuable type 
of judgment than does the latter. In mathematical stud- 
ies we deal with causes that are known perfectly, and 
we have results that are either absolutely right or abso- 
lutely wrong. The results are inevitable, too; we can- 
not imagine any other result for the problem presented 
than the one that is right. Now, in actual life, as we deal 
with our fellow human beings and mingle in society, there 
are few absolute relations and inevitable consequences. 
Our judgment, therefore, about these human affairs- is 
liable to be fallible. It is very easy to miss seeing some 
of the causes of an act, and it is quite impossible to 
anticipate all of its consequences. We must deal many 
times not with certainties and absolute principles, as 
in mathematics, but with probabilities and with princi- 
ples whose application varies according to circumstances. 

34. Comparisons. — Judgment is called for in the mak- 
ing of comparisons. It is possible to compare two per- 
sons, events or situations only when they have some 



44 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

features in common. The comparison consists, then, 
in pointing out the common elements and those that 
are different. We have seen that such a comparison of 
the French and English methods of colonization can be 
made. So we may compare the New England colonies 
with the Southern group on numerous points, such as 
soil, climate, rivers, coast line, character of people, nature 
of industries and social life. It is possible to make a very 
interesting comparison between the North and the South 
at the outbreak of the Civil War, upon the following 
topics: population, industries, wealth, knowledge of the 
country which was to be the seat of war, military lead- 
ers, sources of military supplies, merchant marine, fit- 
ness of men to become soldiers. 

35. The Actions of Men. — It is often necessary in the 
study of history to pass judgment upon the actions of 
its leading characters. Here there is great danger of 
judging upon insufficient grounds. The desire to form 
a fair judgment may therefore be an incentive to read 
more, in order to obtain the greatest amount of informa- 
tion possible concerning the man's motives and the 
circumstances under which he acted. Was Jefferson 
right in refusing to involve the country in war during 
his presidency? Was Polk right in hastening the war 
against Mexico? What shall be our judgment of Ben- 
edict Arnold? Will his history reveal any facts that may 
mitigate our harshest criticism? What shall we say of 
Andrew Jackson? Can we separate the good from the 



GENERAL METHODS 45 

bad qualities in him and arrive at a sound and impartial 
judgment as to his true worth? 

36. Public Policies.— There is frequent occasion in the 
study of history to pass judgment upon policies. Again, 
let it be remembered that the verdict is either valueless 
or unjust which is not based upon the greatest amount 
of evidence obtainable. We condemn the Puritans for 
persecuting Roger Williams and the Quakers. If they 
were present, what provocation and what circumstances 
could they cite which would affect our opinion in their 
favor? The policy of the English government pre- 
ceding the American Revolution receives in most text- 
books unqualified condemnation. Yet little emphasis 
is laid upon the fact that navigation laws were system- 
atically violated by the colonists, and the fact is not 
mentioned that in some of their provisions colonial inter- 
ests were benefited. The Stamp Act seen through Amer- 
ican eyes is likely to be a monstrous instrument of 
oppression, enacted with malicious purpose by a design- 
ing Parliament. When we consider that its author gave 
a year's notice of its introduction into Parliament for 
the purposes of ascertaining the sentiments of the colo- 
nists and of giving them an opportunity to present any 
other feasible plan for raising the money, new light is 
thrown upon the incident. When we learn further that 
the money to be raised by the Stamp Act was supposed 
co be sufficient to pay but one-third of the cost of a small 
standing army in the colonies, the balance of the cost 



46 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to come from the British treasury; when, again, we read 
the history of previous unsuccessful efforts to induce 
the colonies to give adequate support to frontier defen- 
ses; when, finally, Pontiac's war, with its terrible devas- 
tation, is cited as an evidence that some permanent force 
was necessary to secure protection — with all these facts 
on the other side of the question arrayed before us, may 
not our judgment be compelled to reconsider the harsh 
conclusions that are so commonly accepted concerning 
the Stamp Act? 

We cannot here cite further facts to show that there 
was "another side" to the pre-Revolutionary debate. 
The single fact that one-third of the people, and those in- 
cluding the more intelligent classes, remained loyal to 
the mother country, is evidence of the strength of the 
argument against the movement for independence. We 
may not alter our conclusion as a result of our examina- 
tion of the evidence on both sides, but the process by 
which our judgment is formed will be very different on 
account of our study, and its value will be very much 
greater because we have approached the subject in a 
spirit of fairness. 

So, also, the history of the great debate that preceded 
secession deserves study on both sides. The teacher, 
at least, if not the pupils, should take pains to find and 
to state in its strongest form the argument of those who 
led the secession movement. They based their cause 
partly upon the origin and nature of our government, 



GENERAL METHODS 47 

and some eminent authorities now believe that upon this 
point they had the better of the argument. They sin- 
cerely believed that a condition of slavery was better 
suited to the negro than freedom. Cannot facts be cited 
to support this contention? The leaders of the South 
pointed to acts of Northern legislatures in behalf of fugi- 
tive slaves that virtually nullified acts of Congress and 
the Constitution itself. May this be some justification 
for their own rash acts? In brief, may we not investi- 
gate and present to the judgment of pupils that side of 
the controversy for which thousands of the noblest Amer- 
icans gladly offered their lives? The full and frank 
admission of all that can be reasonably said on either side 
cannot injure the cause of truth. Our faith in the side 
which judgment finally says is right will be the stronger 
because we know the strongest arguments that can be 
brought against it. 

37. Intelligent Citizenship.— If the hearing and care- 
ful weighing of the evidence on both sides of our great 
historical controversies characterizes the study of history 
students, they are being trained to carry the same' spirit 
into their examination of the many public questions 
of the day, upon which they themselves must pass judg- 
ment as intelligent citizens. Here is the opportunity 
to inculcate habits of broad and tolerant thinking. Judg- 
ments that are arbitrary and prejudiced should be frowned 
upon; the generous admission of a strong argument in 
favor of an opponent should be commended. Thus may 



48 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

be attained one of the greatest benefits to be derived from 
the study of history. 

IX. Working for Ethical Results 

38. Dependence upon Methods. — In a general sense 
the ethical results to be gained from the study of history 
are not different from those that may be secured in the 
pursuit of any other branch. The matter may be summed 
up in one phrase, honesty of thought. When students are 
taught to look facts squarely in the face, to see all the 
facts, not merely those that are agreeable to them, they 
are learning the first steps in straightforward thinking. 
It has been said that the methods sometimes employed 
by students in solving mathematical problems are dis- 
tinctly unethical; that is, when the process is half guess- 
work, or when the student is satisfied with any result or 
when he is satisfied with the right one without under- 
standing the method by which it was obtained. Likewise, 
if the mental operations in historical study are slipshod, 
if no honest effort is made to secure all available data 
before a conclusion is drawn, and if the student is sat- 
isfied to present as his own a conclusion which he 
cannot explain — then, too, he has used distinctly 
unethical processes. No one can ever know how 
many of the smart rascals that feed upon the 
credulity of the American people received daily 
training in rascality in the class rooms of our common 
schools. 



GENERAL METHODS 49 

39. Charity in Judgments. — In the previous chapter 
it was asserted that the effort to appreciate the views of 
both sides in a controversy, especially to give due con- 
sideration to beliefs that we cannot ourselves accept, 
should make students of history more charitable in form- 
ing judgments. This certainly has an ethical bearing 
and will tend toward the formation of qualities that are 
extremely desirable in after life. 

40. The Triumph of Right. — One of the most impor- 
tant lessons taught by history is that which leads us to 
have faith in the triumph of right over wrong. We learn 
that the processes by which progress is made are slow and 
gradual, and this teaches us patience. We see that a 
wrong committed to afford temporary relief in a difficult 
situation finally makes matters worse, and that compro- 
mise with evil solves no problems; while at the same time, 
progress against evil must in nearly every case proceed 
by gradual stages that may be termed compromises. 

41. Moral Qualities. — Perhaps the greatest moral les- 
sons are taught through the study of the lives of great 
men and women. These historical characters are admired 
for their strong qualities. They are the models and the 
source of inspiration for young hero-worshipers. The 
stories of struggles against poverty and adverse circum- 
stances that characterize the boyhood of so many Amer- 
ican leaders have added faith and strength to the life of 
many an American youth. The boy tends to become 
like that which he admires. Stories of Lincoln's honesty 



50 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



serve to embody that abstract quality in an attractive 
human form; so the child grasps more readily the true 
meaning of honesty and realizes more fully its beauty 
and strength. 

Stories of American soldiers typify the physical brav- 
ery that should steel every boy's heart against unmanly 
weakness. But we need in our histories more stories of 
pure moral bravery, like that of Wendell Phillips, who 
saw all his social and professional life blasted by his 
acceptance of anti-slavery agitation as a life-work. We 
find in the story of George Rogers Clark a fine example 
of tenacity of purpose under the most adverse circum- 
stances. 

42. Civic Virtues. — The teacher who will make the 
civic virtues that are demanded in times of peace as 
attractive as those required in times of war will render 
a valuable service to the country. Should we not con- 
sciously aim to enlarge the meaning of the word patriot- 
ism, which to the young mind means chiefly readiness to 
go to war for one's country? In fact, the study of his- 
tory should lead directly to the consideration of public 
duty as it confronts young men and women — to the duty 
that they owe their own town or village, because here 
the influence of intelligent and high-minded young lives 
is most needed. Very few can enter directly the service 
of the state or nation, but all can devote time and labor 
towards building up in the local community a strong, 
healthy sentiment in favor of public righteousness. 



GENERAL METHODS 51 

X. The Place of Wars and Battles 

43. Change in Methods. — In recent years there has 
been a change of considerable importance in the empha- 
sis given to various topics in the history class. The 
tendency has been to make less prominent the military 
campaigns and battles of our history and to devote more 
time to the consideration of the life, industries and man- 
ners of the people in the different periods. This change 
of emphasis is certainly in the right direction. 

44. Economic Causes of Wars.— The French and Indian 
wars, so far as they had American causes, reflect the 
struggle between the pioneers of two nations for the con- 
trol of the economic resources of the Newfoundland fish- 
eries and of the central plains. The fur trade of the lake 
region and the rich agricultural lands of the Ohio and 
Mississippi valleys were at stake in this struggle. Well 
may we study with thoroughness the industries and life 
of the French in their scattered settlements and of the 
English colonists on the Atlantic border; for here we shall 
find the true causes of these wars. 

The causes that led to the Revolutionary War were at 
the bottom economic. The conditions of colonial com- 
merce furnish the key to the greatest discontent with the 
mother country. The right of taxation involved, indeed, 
a political principle; but this, like most other political 
principles, rests upon an economic basis — the control of 
individual property. The means adopted by the colo- 



52 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



nists in opposing the policy of the British government 
before taking up arms were purely economic, and their 
understanding involves a knowledge of colonial industry. 

The War of 1812 was preceded by events that concerned 
our industries and our commercial relations. The rea- 
sons for its long postponement and for its final occurrence 
may be found in the study of economic conditions on the 
Atlantic seaboard and beyond the mountains in the new 
West. Again, it need hardly be said that the economic 
divergence of North and South and the existence of that 
social-economic institution, slavery, accounts for the 
Civil War. Lastly, even in the recent war with Spain, 
the interference with our commerce which Spain's policy 
in Cuba involved was no small feature of the situation. 
Thus it will be seen that in placing more emphasis upon 
the actual conditions of life in our history we are study- 
ing the causes from which wars spring. 

Quite as much may it be said that the final victory in 
war is determined by the relative economic stability of 
the contestants. The importance of this fact in our ear- 
lier wars is seen only by the student of European history. 
But in the Civil War this topic may furnish a most fruit- 
ful source of study and discussion. 

45. Other Phases of Wars.— The time usually given 
to the discussion of military movements may be short- 
ened and certain other phases of war may profitably receive 
greater attention. Among the latter are the finances 
of our wars. To make these clear will involve an ele- 



GENERAL METHODS 53 

mentary treatment of (1) the means by which taxes were 
raised; (2) the story of our paper money issues, with 
the invaluable lessons which every young American 
citizen may learn from them; (3) the issuance of national 
bonds and the establishment of the national banking 
system. As these subjects are usually learned they con- 
stitute a series of mysterious phrases mechanically mem- 
orized; whereas, in the more advanced classes they are 
capable of such explanation and illustration as to furnish 
a fund of valuable information which the students will 
have abundant opportunity to use in the practical affairs 
of life. 

Again, the means used to raise troops and the manner 
of their equipment and support are topics that will make 
more vivid the actual circumstances of our wars. Too 
often an army is merely a blue or red line on the map 
— a campaign is a series of dotted lines. Students fail 
to see the men who marched, camped and charged, who 
bled and died on battlefields. We recite glibly "six thou- 
sand men were killed and wounded/' with no tremor of 
the voice, no quickening of pulse-beat. Is it too much 
to assert that this cold-blooded way of studying war is 
inhuman and hardening to the sensibilities of our pupils? 
Can it not be that the glorification of war in schools 
accounts in no small measure for the readiness of each 
succeeding generation to incur war's horrors without 
realizing until too late what it means at the fireside and 
around the family table? 



54 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

46. Probability of Errors in Teaching.— A most impor- 
tant objection to the extensive study of military move- 
ments in the common schools is the fact that in most cases 
neither the author of the text-book nor the teacher is suf- 
ficiently informed in the technicalities of military science 
to be a good judge of the facts stated. How many 
pupils are taught that in the Battle of Bunker Hill both 
the American and the British committed unpardonable 
errors from a military point of view? To how many 
students is Grant's advance from the Wilderness to Peters- 
burg a triumphal march, rather than a series of mili- 
tary reverses? We must teach only the most general 
features of these movements, unless we take the time 
to study one campaign or battle in detail, thus to acquire 
full knowledge upon which a reasonable judgment can 
be based. 

47. Study by Campaigns.— Every war, then, should 
be analyzed into campaigns, and these should be stud- 
ied as units. For the Revolution we have- the following 
analysis : 

(1) The campaign around Boston, 1775-1776. 

(2) The campaign around New York and- across New 
Jersey, ending after the Battle of Princeton, 1776-1777. 

(3) Burgoyne's campaign, 1777. 

(4) Howe's capture of Philadelphia and his subsequent 
evacuation of that city, 1777-1778. 

(5) Campaigns in the South, 1779-1780. 

(6) The Yorktown campaign, 1781. 



GENERAL METHODS 55 

Minor movements and events of the war may be in- 
serted in the proper places. 

In every campaign there are three phases: (1) the 
reasons for it, (2) the movements of troops and (3) 
the results. Unless these three elements are covered, the 
study is apt to be loose and pointless. The second ele- 
ment is always capable of analysis. For instance, the 
movements involved in the campaign of 1776 around 
New York are as follows: (1) Washington fortifies New 
York; (2) the British advance from Staten Island to 
Long Island and attack his fortifications; (3) because of 
the success of this movement Washington retreats to New 
York and northward; (4) the British follow; (5) the Battle 
of White Plains is fought and Washington retreats across 
the Hudson; (6) Forts Washington and Lee are seized 
and Washington retreats across New Jersey; (7) this 
retreat is checked by the crossing of the Delaware River; 
(8) the Battle of Trenton is fought; (9) Washington's 
army marches around that of Cornwallis and fights the 
Battle of Princeton; (10) the British forces return to the 
vicinity of New York, while Washington is stationed at 
Morristown; there the campaign ends. 

Pursuing this method, we get the gist of the matter; 
details are suppressed for the time in order that the 
essentials may stand out prominently. 

48. Aids to Study. — It is needless to say that the suc- 
cessful study of military movements without the constant 
use of maps is an impossibility; but this topic furnishes 



56 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the subject matter of the next chapter — the relation of 
geography to history. The study of wars may be enliv- 
ened and made realistic by the use of pictures in abun- 
dance. The gathering of historical relics is also a valuable 
aid. Now that the Civil War is receding so far into the 
past and the ranks of its participants are thinning so 
rapidly, every schoolhouse should become a center for 
the collection and preservation of articles that help to 
tell its story. Thus may we make the war something 
more than a lesson in the text-book. 

XI. Relating History to Geography 

49. Failures in History.— There are three classes of 
students whose lack of attainment attests the absolute 
failure of the instruction under which they pass their 
school years. These are the students who know how to 
add, but cannot get the right answer; the students who 
know the rules of grammar but cannot speak correct Eng- 
lish, and the students who know that an event happened 
but cannot tell where it occurred. Unfortunately, the 
failure in the last instance is not usually regarded as seri- 
ous; for there is no phase of history that is so much 
neglected as its geographical setting. This is true in spite 
of the fact that every event happens at some precise 
spot on earth and that frequently the location is the most 
significant feature of the occurrence. 

This inefficient teaching of American history without 
placing events in their geographical setting contributes 



GENERAL METHODS 57 

no small part to the vagueness and unreality of the sub- 
ject in pupils' minds. It goes far to explain their failure 
to grasp the facts of history and their lack of interest in 
the study. Students whose knowledge has this stamp 
of inexactitude and unreality deserve the condemnation 
placed upon them by men in the world of business; they 
are unpractical. 

60. Remedies.— Several simple rules persistently obeyed 
will go far towards remedying the condition here com- 
plained of : 

(1) A map should hang before the class during every 
recitation. 

(2) Without exception pupils should be required to 
step to the map and point out every important place 
under discussion. No pupil should be allowed to recite 
upon an event of whose location he is ignorant. 

(3) Pupils should draw maps or fill outline maps fre- 
quently. 

While the wall map is indispensable, much more sat- 
isfactory for actual use before the class is the sketch map 
drawn by the teacher on the black-board. The advan- 
tages of the latter are as follows: (1) In the sketch map 
are shown only the main geographical features, all details 
that confuse or blur the pupil's impression being omit- 
ted. (2) On this map the teacher can mark each place as 
the discussion proceeds; thus the event becomes firmly 
attached to its geographical setting. (3) The progress 
of events is seen in the growth of the map. Review is 



58 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

also facilitated by the continued presence of the maps 
that have been developed in recitation. 
51. The Influence of Geographical Conditions.— The 

influence of geographical conditions in determining the 
course of our history is receiving tardy recognition. Here 
opens up a delightful field for investigation and discus- 
sion. In a previous chapter reference was made to the 
fact that the physical geography of Virginia accounted 
for the character of its industry in colonial times and that 
this in turn fixed the type of social and political life prev- 
alent there. Another group of physical causes was work- 
ing in New England. Here we find a region where popu- 
lation settled in towns and upon small farms. Physical 
geography accounts for this, mainly. Again, a comparison 
of the life that grew up in New France with that which 
prevailed in the English colonies will make evident the 
fact that geographical causes were most prominent fac- 
tors in determining the widely different types of life and 
industry in the two regions. The mountain barrier 
retarded westward progress for one nationality, while 
an interminable network of lakes, rivers, and streams 
offered to the other a tempting invitation to search its 
farthest reaches. Again, that most important event of 
our early national history, the purchase of Louisiana, 
so often regarded as purely diplomatic in character, was 
in reality determined by facts of physical geography. 
The Mississippi River offered the only practicable out- 
let for the products of the Western settlers; for the moun- 



GENERAL METHODS 59 

tain roads connecting them with the East were so difficult 
that no profit could result from shipments made in that 
direction. Unless the national government would assist 
them in their difficulty, the Westerners were prepared 
to take matters into their own hands, to conquer control 
of the Mississippi and, if necessary in accomplishing their 
ends, to cut the bonds that united them to the East. The 
problem, then, was nothing less than the preservation of 
the integrity of the Union by the acquisition of an adequate 
outlet by nature's western waterway. 

The importance of geographical conditions in military 
campaigns is frequently overlooked. The master stroke of 
the British in the Revolutionary War — Burgoyne's cam- 
paign — was based upon geographical conditions, and it 
was owing to the failure of those who planned the cam- 
paign to fully comprehend these conditions that the expe- 
dition was disastrous. Washington was a master of 
strategy because he was able to foresee the influence of 
geographical conditions and to use them to his advantage. 
He occupied Dorchester Heights and compelled the evacu- 
ation of Boston; he occupied Morristown and compelled 
the British to remain inactive in New York, and finally 
trapped Cornwallis in York town peninsula. 

The influence of geography in determining the cam- 
paigns of the Civil War receives less attention than it 
deserves. Why did the Northern armies succeed so much 
more fully in accomplishing their purposes in the West 
than in the East? This was largely a matter of physi- 



60 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

cal geography. Examine the map and see how in the 
West, the course of three great rivers, the Mississippi, 
the Cumberland and the Tennessee, at those portions 
of their courses lying near the border of the Confederacy, 
is north and south. Nature thus provided three water- 
ways leading into the interior of the Confederacy. And 
we must understand that the progress of an army with 
its supplies and equipment is much more easy by water 
than by land. The Ohio River, too, furnished a natural 
water front, rendering possible the construction of a river 
naval force and making easier the defense of the North- 
ern states. In the East, on the other hand, the conditions 
were quite the reverse. South of the Potomac, Virginia 
is traversed by numerous rivers, all of which run east. 
Each one, then, offers a barrier to the southward progress 
of an invading army. The Shenandoah River and the 
valley inclosing it, an apparent exception to the rule, could 
not be utilized in attacks upon Richmond, for its trend 
is southwestward, leading away from the destination of 
the Northern army. On the other hand, this sheltered 
passageway offered a convenient route by which the Con- 
federate armies made their invasions into Northern ter- 
ritory. These two great geographical features of the 
Eastern seat of war account for all the great movements 
made therein, for the Peninsular campaign, for the ter- 
rible difficulties faced by Hooker, Pope and Grant 
and for the routes taken by Lee on his Northern 
invasions. 



GENERAL METHODS 61 

XII. Correlating History and Civil G-overnment 
52. Progress toward National Government. — No insti- 
tution can be understood in its fullest sense until its origin 
and growth have been traced. There are many of our 
political institutions whose history we cannot trace in 
the common schools; such are the jury system, our sys- 
tems of taxation and the principle of representative 
government. The roots of these and many other parts 
of our system lie deeply buried in the history of other 
countries. But some features of our local governments 
and the main features of our national government 
may be traced as they were developed on Ameri- 
can soil. 

In a previous chapter (Section 13) there was pre- 
sented an outline of the principal events that indicated 
progress towards union and a national government. 
The story of these events impresses upon us the gradual- 
ness of this progress; while from the study of the spirit 
prevalent among the people of these times we shall learn 
with what struggles each step was accomplished. These 
fundamental facts in the history of our national govern- 
ment stand forth prominently, assisting us to appreciate 
the labors and difficulties involved in the process of nation- 
alization that seemed to be complete when the Consti- 
tution was framed and put into operation. But we 
should be greatly mistaken to stop here in our study of 
the way in which a really national sentiment came to pre- 
vail among the people of the United States; for many 



62 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of the topics in our subsequent history turn upon this 
point. 

To understand the difficulties encountered before a 
truly national government could be established, is to take 
the first step towards grasping the fundamental principle 
of our entire governmental system, namely, that the peo- 
ple of the states possessed originally all the powers of 
government, and that they have surrendered some of 
these to the national government, which exercises only 
such powers as are delegated to it (see Amendment X 
of the Constitution). It is difficult to explain our sys- 
tem without some consideration of its history, . and it 
is impossible to appreciate it fully unless this history is 
brought into close association with the actual provisions 
of the Constitution. The discussion of this body of facts, 
then, should find a place in both history and civil gov- 
ernment classes. Its importance warrants this repetition. 

53. Topics for Elementary Classes. — Not alone the 
origin of our national government, but also many of its 
existing features may be explained historically in elemen- 
tary classes. Why do we have a Senate as one branch of 
Congress? Why have all the states equal representation 
in the Senate? Why was the present method of electing 
the president by a system of electors established? 

54. Introducing the Study of the Constitution. — The 
history class furnishes numerous topics whose understand- 
ing may serve as introductory to a study of the Consti- 
tution. When the national government first exercises 



GENERAL METHODS 63 

its power of taxation the appropriate clause of the Con- 
stitution should be examined. When Jay's treaty is 
made, the process furnishes exemplification of the Con- 
stitutional provision respecting treaties. The election 
of 1800 can only be understood after a study of the origi- 
nal provision describing this process. Here, too, we find 
the proper place to study the Twelfth Amendment of 
the Constitution. The abstract idea of " loose and strict 
construction' ' is one of the bugbears to students in civil 
government. Dissociated from the concrete cases that 
arise in our early history — such topics as the bank ques- 
tion and the purchase of Louisiana — this subject is impos- 
sible of comprehension. Again, how many history classes 
have been required to learn that the last three amend- 
ments were enacted as a result of the Civil War, without 
attempting to comprehend, or even to read, the provi- 
sions of these amendments? On the other hand, how 
many classes in civil government have struggled over 
the provisions of these amendments without a review 
of their history as an aid to their understanding? 

55. Economy and Value of Correlation. — Now, the 
correlation of history and civil government in such top- 
ics is not only reasonable, but economical as well. For 
that is true economy in the work of teaching which tends 
toward the unification of knowledge into a consistent 
whole. So many of our common school branches seem 
to be disconnected, and so much of our pupils' informa- 
tion is scattered and fragmentary, that we cannot afford 



64 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

to neglect this opportunity to bridge the artificial gap 
that the curriculum places between these two subjects. 
56. The Real Fruit of Historical Study.— A writer has 
said, "History without political science has no fruit. 
Political science without history has no root." While 
the lines of this couplet are equally true, the first espe- 
cially needs emphasis in our common schools. There 
is today a marked tendency in education which, when 
fully realized, will do much to establish closer relations 
between our studies and the facts of every day life. His- 
tory then will cease to yield merely an isolated body of 
knowledge. Its terms will be understood because the 
social and political faets of today are used as the key to 
their interpretation; what the child may see and expe- 
rience will assist him in comprehending the events of his- 
tory. Again, our history will throw light upon the 
political conditions and events of today when the qual- 
ifications required of teachers include a vital interest in 
the current news of the world. And, finally, history, 
instead of supplying merely a fund of information, will 
supply also an impetus toward right social and political 
action. The fruit of historical study should be good 
citizenship. Pupils should find in the teacher their 
example and should receive in the history class 
an impulse to discharge faithfully their obligations 
towards the country whose sacrifices have enabled 
them to receive the education furnished by the common 
schools. 



GENERAL METHODS 65 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS 
The chapter is divided into the following general 
divisions : 

I. Purpose in Teaching History. 
II. The Use of the Text-book. 

III. The Use of Outlines. 

IV. Reviews. 

V. Use of Supplementary Reading. 

VI. Teaching Cause and Effect. 

VII. Interpreting History by Experience. 

VIII. Training in Judgment. ' 

IX. Working for Ethical Results. 

X. The Place of War and Battles. 

XI. Relating Geography and History. 

XII. Correlating History and Civil Government. 

I. Purposes in Teaching History 

1. Introduction: 

History compared with the three R's as a practical 
study. 

History more purely intellectual than " prac- 
tical." 

2. Imparting Information: 

This is the first purpose in teaching history. 

To know the important facts of history is to be 

"well informed." 
Importance of a knowledge of history in reading 

newspapers and magazines. 



66 united states history 

3. Stimulating Patriotism: 

Stimulating patriotism is the second great purpose 

in teaching history. 
What patriotism is. 
False patriotism. 
Distinction between "fighting patriotism" and 

"civic patriotism." 
Study of history affords one of the best means of 

arousing the right sort of patriotism. 

4. Developing Mind: 

History is not different from other branches as an 
agency for developing the mind. 

The study of history broadens one's mental horizon 
and strengthens the power of judgment. 

5. Influencing Reading: 

The study of history should lead children and 
young people to enjoy books that tell our 
country's story. 

II. Use of the Text-Book 

6. The Proper Conception of the Text-Book: 

(a) The book should not be 

(1) Worshipped by the teacher. 

(2) Underestimated by the teacher. 

(b) Limitations of the text-book. 

(1) It does not contain all the facts of history. 

(2) Some of its statements may be incorrect. 

(c) Advantages of using a text-book. 



GENERAL METHODS 67 

(1) It contains groups of important facts in small 

compass. 

(2) It is usually well organized so that the rela- 

tion of facts can be clearly seen. 

(3) Pupils should use the text-book as a source 

of facts. 
They should not memorize the text. 
The teacher must understand the plan and 

purpose of the author. 
She must become familiar with the contents 

of the book. 

7. The Natural Sequence of Learning: 

(a) Understand the subject-matter. 

(b) Become interested in it. 

(c) Remember it. 

8. Assignment of the Lesson: 

(a) State what are the important and the unimportant 

parts of the lesson. 

(b) Call attention to difficult passages. 

(c) Call attention to questions which the pupil 

should think out when studying the 
lesson. 

(d) Suggest a plan for organizing the facts of the 

lesson. 

(e) Point out the necessity of understanding the mean- 

ing of all the words and phrases found in the 
lesson. 

(f) Ask questions to aid in this understanding. 



68 united states history 

9. Recitations from the Text: 

There are two methods of recitation: 

(a) By questions and answers. 

(b) By topics. 

The latter method has many points of advantage. 
Assign the topic and let the pupil recite upon it. 
Follow his recitation by such questions as may be 

necessary to bring out omitted points. 
Do not allow the pupil to repeat the words of the 

book in a parrot-like manner. 
The character of the recitation is determined by 

(a) The pupil's method of study. 

(b) The teacher's method of questioning. 

10. Study in the Recitation. 

III. The Use7of Outlines 

11. The Relations of Events: 

To learn the history of a period the student must 
grasp at the same time: 

(a) Facts concerning the main events. 

(b) Facts concerning the inter-relation of 
these events. 

12. Characteristics of a Good Outline: 

Principles : 

(a) Before a proper outline can be made the 
relations of the facts must be known. 

(b) The complete outline should aid in grasp- 
ing these relations. 



GENERAL METHODS 69 

(c) The outline should be the result not the 
source, of this knowledge. 

(d) The outline serves its best purpose while 
it is being made. 

(e) The outline is an aid to memory, but 
should be understood before it is mem- 
orized. 

13. Typical Outlines: 

(a) Chronological — showing contempora- 
neous events. 

(b) Comparative — showing comparison of 
conditions at a given time. 

(c) Associative — showing the relations of 
facts all bearing upon the fact under dis- 
cussion; as, the formation of the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. 

14. The Time for Making Outlines. 

15. Conclusion. 

IV. Reviews 

16. An Aid to Memory; 

Relations of reviews to outlines. 
Should test the pupil's understanding of the sub- 
ject as well as his memory. 

17. A Test of Knowledge: 

(a) By asking pupils to make new combina- 
tions. 

(b) By test questions. 

(c) By comparisons. 



70 united states history 

18. Typical Reviews: 

(a) Brief review preceding the regular lesson. 

(b) Reviews combining events of a similar 
nature. 

(c) Topical reviews — the topic to be con- 
sidered as a unit. 

(d) Review topics for note books. 

(e) Drill exercises. 

19. Dates. 



V. The Use of Supplementary Reading 
20. Utility of Supplementary Reading: 



(a) Supplementary books supply details not 
found in the text-book. 

(b) Supplementary books aid in the repro- 
duction of historical scenes. 

(c) The benefits derived from supplementary 
books are not confined to school years. 

21. Essentials of Supplementary Reading: 

(a) Get the books. 

(b) Select the books with reference to the 
subject and the class. 

(c) The teacher must read the books. 

(d) The teacher must assist the pupil in the 
use of books. 

(e) The teacher must see that the book and 
topic are suited to the pupil to whom 
they are assigned. 






GENERAL METHODS 71 

(f) The teacher should require a report from 
each pupil on each book that he 
reads. 

22. Conclusion. 

VI. Teaching Cause and Effect 

23. Why Causes and Effects Should be Considered: 

(a) We believe that there is a reason back of 
every act. 

(b) Omission of cause and effect leads to lack 
of interest in history. 

24. Illustrations of Cause and Effect: 

(a) Explorations. 

(b) Navigation Acts. 

(c) Retaliatory Acts of 1774. 

25. Deceptive Reasoning: 

The teacher should see that the pupil does not 
acquire the habit of loose thinking. 

26. A Restriction. 

27. History a Series of Problems: 

It is as necessary to reason as to remember in the 

study of history. 
Typical problems. 

(a) The discovery of America. 

(b) Separation of the English Colonies from 
the Mother Country. 

(c) Did independence necessarily involve the 
union of the Colonies? 



72 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

VII. Interpreting History by Experience 

28. Experience an Aid in Interpretation: 

(a) The understanding of some topics de- 
pends upon knowledge gained from books 
and the knowledge gained from experience. 

(b) Illustrative topics. 
Writs of Assistance. 
United States Bank. 

29. Immature Pupils: 

Topics that can be understood only through 
experience should not be studied by young 
pupils. 

30. Events of Today: 

The teacher should, whenever possible, relate the 
events of the history lesson to events of the 
present time. 

(a) The tariff of 1816 and the tariff of 1910. 

(b) Discovery of the Philippine Islands and 
their present condition. 

(c) The Whiskey Insurrection and present 
internal revenue measures. 

(d) Paper money of the Revolutionary War, 
and Greenbacks. 

31. Pictures and Material Objects. 

VIII. Training the Judgment 

32. An Aid to Judgment: 

(a) Judgment depends upon the ability to 
imagine. 



GENERAL METHODS 73 

(b) Snap judgments are harmful. 

(c) Historical study should stimulate the 
spirit of investigation. 

(d) In calling for judgments the teacher 
should 

(1) Present adequate grounds upon which 
to base opinion. 

(2) Avoid being arbitrary. 

33. Causes and Results: 

(a) History deals with the acts of rational 
beings; therefore the sequence of events 
is rational. 

(b) Tracing this sequence is of great benefit 
to the students. 

(c) The authority of the teacher or text-book 
should not be substituted for tracing rela- 
tions. 

(d) History is more valuable than mathe- 
matical studies for developing the reason- 
ing powers. 

34. Comparisons: 

(a) Comparisons require judgment. 

(b) Comparison consists in pointing out the 
resemblances and differences in the ob- 
jects compared. 

35. The Actions of Men: 

(a) Danger of judging on insufficient grounds. 

(b) Extended reading often necessary. 



74 united states history 

36. Public Policies: 

(a) Judgment based upon insufficient evi- 
dence is valueless or one-sided. 

(b) Every great question has two sides. 

(c) The pupil should learn the facts on both 
sides of the question before passing judg- 
ment upon it. 

37. Intelligent Citizenship. 

IX. Working for Ethical Results 

38. Dependence Upon Methods: 

(a) Honesty of thought should be the chief 
end sought. 

(b) Slipshod methods of study and teaching 
lead to loose thinking and a tendency to 
be satisfied with conclusions based upon 
insufficient information. 

39. Charity in Judgments. 

40. The Triumph of Right. 

41. Moral Qualities: 

(a) The greatest moral lessons are taught 
through biography. 

(b) Moral as well as physical bravery should 
be emphasized. 

42. Civic Virtues: 

The teacher should develop in the pupils a strong 
sentiment in favor of public righteousness in 
local, state and national affairs. 



GENERAL METHODS 75 

X. The Plan of Wars and Battles 

43. Change in Methods. 

44. Economic Causes of Wars: 

(a) Economic causes lead to the war. 

(b) Economic stability of the contestants 
determines the final victory. 

45. Other Phases of Wars: 

(a) Financial measures. 

(b) Raising, equipping and supporting ar- 

mies. 

(c) The suffering and privations of soldiers 
on campaign duty. 

(d) Devastation of the country through which 
armies move. 

46. Probability of Errors in Teaching: 

Extended study of a military campaign should not 
be attempted by teachers not well versed in 
military science. 

47. Study by Campaigns: 

(a) Analyze the war into campaigns. 

(b) Teach the leading facts of the campaign 
first. 

(c) Add such minor details as time and 
capacity of the class permit. 

48. Aids to Study: 

(a) Maps. 

(b) Pictures. 

(c) Historical relics. 



76 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

XI. Relating History to Geography 

49. Failures in History: 

The geographical setting is necessary to give 
definiteness to historical knowledge. 

50. Remedies: 

(a) Use the maps. 

(b) Have pupils locate places mentioned in 
the lessons. 

(c) Have pupils sketch maps of the region 
studied. 

51. The Influence of Geographical Conditions: 

(a) Importance of geographical conditions in 
determining industries. 

(b) In shaping national policies. 

(c) In military campaigns. 

XII. Correlating History and Civil Government 

52. Progress Toward National Government: 

(a) Knowledge of its origin and growth is 
necessary to an understanding of any 
institution. 

(b) Topics whose history cannot be traced in 
the common schools. 

(c) Topics whose history can and should be 
traced. 

(d) Our system of government cannot be 
easily explained without considering its 
history. 



geneeal methods 77 

53. Topics for Elementary Classes. 

54. Introducing the Study of the Constitution : 

(a) When an act based upon the Constitution 
is studied, refer to the proper article and 
section of the Constitution which makes 
the act possible. 

(b) Use concrete cases and explain certain 
clauses of the Constitution, and, con- 
versely, use the Constitution to explain 
the case in hand. 

55. Economy and Value of Correlation. 

56. The Real Fruit of Historical Study: 

(a) Establishment of a closer relation be- 
tween history and the facts of everyday 
life. 

(b) Securing a vital interest in the news of 
the world. 

(c) Development of an impetus toward right 
social and political action. 

PLANS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 
History Stories 
57. The Place of Stories. — In every school having a 
good course of study the pupils begin the study of his- 
torical subjects long before a text-book is placed in their 
hands, and some of the most valuable instruction which 
they ever receive in this subject should be that presented 
orally by the teacher. In some schools an elementary 



78 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

text-book precedes the more advanced text used in the 
grammar grades. All of these elementary books that are 
successful are books of history stories. Whether the infor- 
mation is obtained from the teacher in the form of oral 
instruction or from a text-book, in the elementary classes 
it should be presented in the form of stories, for children 
of this age are particularly responsive to this sort of 
instruction. Whenever it is possible for the teacher to 
prepare the work, oral instruction is much more effective 
than book study, and whether or not the book is used 
the teacher should be able to tell the story of the 
lesson. 

58. Selection of Material. — History stories may be 
divided into three classes: biographies; stories of his- 
torical events, such as the settlement of Jamestown or the 
Battle of Bunker Hill, and stories of inventions and dis- 
covery, such as the story of the steamboat and the story 
of the discovery of gold in California. The course of 
instruction in elementary classes should include stories 
from each of these classes, but in making the selection 
the teacher should be guided by the following conditions: 

1. The Age of the Class. — Beginning classes — those of 
pupils from eight to ten years of age — are not able to follow 
intelligently stories that require a grasp of the great facts 
in geography, like the rotundity of the earth, the vastness 
of the ocean or the great distances traveled by navigators 
on long voyages. Therefore it is a mistake to begin with 
the stories of Columbus and other early explorers. 



GENERAL METHODS 79 

Children of this age will follow with eager interest stories 
of simple pioneer life, especially when the story is in the 
form of biography. Begin with stories of Daniel Boone, 
Roger Williams, Father Marquette and other French Mis- 
sionaries, and gradually lead up to biographies that require 
a more extensive knowledge on the part of the pupils. 
During the first year nearly all stories should be biograph- 
ical. After that, stories of events can be interspersed with 
biographies. Stories of this class are the settlement of 
Jamestown, the settlement of Plymouth, Penn's Treaty 
with the Indians, the capture of Quebec by General Wolfe, 
and so on. A story of invention may now and then be 
mingled with stories of historic events. These should be 
of epoch-making inventions, such as the cotton gin, the 
telegraph and the sewing machine. 

2. Nature of the Subject. — Stories from each of the 
classes named should be selected with due regard to their 
content. Is the material of such nature that it will interest 
the class? Is it of a character that will exert a wholesome 
influence? Is it within the scope of their comprehension? 
Am I in sufficient sympathy with the subject to tell the 
story well? These and other questions will occur to the 
teacher who scans her material with care. It should be 
said in reference to the content of the story that incidents 
which tend to arouse undesirable emotions, such as anger 
or hatred, or those which seem to place a premium on 
wrong doing, should not be used. Therefore, omit stories 
of Indian massacres, bloody battles and such incidents as 



80 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

the persecution of the Quakers in Massachusetts and of the 
Catholics in Maryland. The biographies of such characters 
as Benedict Arnold and Aaron Burr should also be left 
until a later period, when the pupils will be better able to 
pass correct estimates upon them. Biographies of men 
who have lived in recent times and whose relations with 
our national life have been very complex, such as Lincoln, 
Grant and Robert E. Lee, should be divided, stories of the 
boyhood and youth of these men being told to elementary 
classes, and their later lives being reserved for the grammar 
grades. 

59. The Teacher's Preparation.— After the material 
for the lesson has been selected, the next step is its prepara- 
tion for presentation to the class by the teacher. This 
step is all-important, for upon it depends the success of 
the lesson. This preparation is necessary, whether the 
pupils use an elementary history or whether the instruc- 
tion is given orally. In making her preparation the teacher 
should give attention to the following points: 

1. Master the Subject. — Learn the story so thoroughly 
that you can tell it freely and in a natural manner, with- 
out any reference to a book and without hesitation. That 
you may do this, it will be necessary for you to learn much 
more about the subject than you expect to tell the class. 
This extra knowledge will give you an abundance of 
material from which to select the facts to be narrated, 
and, what is perhaps more important, it will afford a com- 
prehension of the subject that will enable you to tell the 



GENERAL METHODS 81 

story much more fluently and effectively than would other- 
wise be possible. To illustrate: you tell the class the 
story of Columbus for the first time. They know enough 
of geography so that with the map before them they can 
follow you in tracing the route followed on his first voyage. 
They can understand the leading facts of his early life; 
that after several attempts to secure aid from the various 
European nations he finally secured it from Spain, and 
they will be especially interested in the manner in which 
the assistance was given. They will appreciate his dis- 
covery of land, the finding of a strange people, and his 
reception upon his return to Spain. To call attention to 
more than these facts would be unwise, but in order to 
bring these facts before your pupils in an interesting 
manner, you must see the position which Columbus 
occupied at that time, appreciate the difficulties which he 
overcame, and realize the tremendous courage required 
for the enterprise which he undertook. Therefore you 
should become thoroughly acquainted with the contents 
of Chapters II and III, Volume VI. You will then have 
at your command all the material necessary for this and 
several other stories about Columbus. 

2. Arrangement. — Having selected the facts to be pre- 
sented in the story, arrange them in logical order and see 
that the narrative proceeds naturally from one to the 
other. Avoid repetition, and omit all side issues. 

3. Practice. — After the story is thus arranged, tell it 
aloud over and over to yourself. In other words, talk it 



82 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

out. Nothing will so quickly show you the weak points 
in your preparation as this. Hesitation at any point shows 
that you do not know this part of the story so well as you 
thought, or that you do not comprehend the import of the 
subject well enough to select the right word without 
hesitation. This telling also reveals any defect in those 
portions of the narrative which join the leading facts. 
Moreover, this telling impresses the story more completely 
upon your mind and is the best possible means of enabling 
you to make it your own. 

4. Helps. — Determine what helps you need, such as 
maps, pictures or other material, and study these so that 
you will know just which points to call attention to when 
using them before the class. 

60. Telling the Story. — The presentation of the lesson, 
or telling the story, and the teacher's preparation are so 
closely related that in practice they can not be separated. 
All through her preparation of the lesson the teacher must 
have clearly in mind her plan of presenting it. She should 
see and feel herself telling the story all the time she is 
preparing it. This feeling will be one of the most impor- 
tant guides in the preparation. Unless the story is success- 
ful, the lesson is a failure. In telling the story the teacher 
should heed the following directions: 

1. Make It Short. — As we have already indicated, 
stories for the younger classes should contain only the 
principal facts. They should never exceed ten minutes in 
length, and from five to seven minutes are better. 



GENERAL METHODS 83 

2. Be Direct. — Tell the story directly, omitting all side 
issues and unnecessary descriptions. " Every epithet and 
adjective beyond what is needed to give the image is a 
five-barred gate in the path of an eager mind traveling 
to a climax." To hold the attention of the class , the 
movement of the story must be increasingly swift, ending 
with a snap. 

3. Be Animated. — Put yourself into the story. Unless 
you can do this, your effort will be more or less of a failure. 
You must have a genuine appreciation of the story, and 
if necessary cultivate your feelings toward the story until 
this degree of appreciation is reached. Make your descrip- 
tions so real and lifelike that the pupils can see the pictures 
that you present. Appeal to the pupils' fund of knowl- 
edge and to their experience. Herein is seen the necessity 
of the broader knowledge referred to in Section 59. This 
knowledge enables you to see with clearness and power the 
events which you describe. Never tell a story you do not feel. 

4. Use Simple Language. — Most of the books from 
which you obtain your information are written for adults, 
many of them for scholars, and while their style may be 
clear and interesting, it is usually too difficult for children. 
Unless you exercise care in your preparation, you are 
liable unconsciously to adopt the style of the work from 
which you obtained your facts, and in doing so you will 
mject into your narrative some words which the children 
will not understand. Moreover, you may give descrip- 
tions which are too elaborate for them to follow. To avoid 



84 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

these dangers, you should make the story over and put it 
in your own words. To attain this directness and sim- 
plicity of style requires much study and practice, and the 
best means of securing the desired result is by telling the 
story over and over to yourself. When time permits, it 
is a good practice to write the story, then revise your 
manuscript until the work is satisfactory. 

61. Reproduction of the Story.— After the story is 
told, the pupils should be called upon to reproduce it or 
any part of it, and as many pupils should be called upon 
to re-tell the story as the recitation period will permit. 
See that the pupils use good language and tell the story 
connectedly. This practice is of great value because it 
fixes the facts in the mind, gives training in language and 
develops the pupil's ability to think consecutively. 

An outline on the board will help the pupils, and can 
be used to advantage. It is well, however, to have the 
class tell the story occasionally without the outline. Once 
or twice a week let the pupils write the story instead of 
telling it orally. 

The story should be made a means of instruction and 
development as well as of entertainment, and if carefully 
followed up as here suggested, it is one of the most valuable 
agencies that the teacher can employ. 

Explorations 

62. Explanatory. — The plans presented for teaching 
explorations and the topics which follow treat each sub- 
ject under two general divisions — A and B. The work 



GENERAL METHODS 85 

outlined under A is for elementary classes; that under B 
is for classes in the grammar grades. In all cases the plans 
given should be considered as types, and as such they 
form the foundation of the plan that should be followed 
in teaching the subject. The plans presented are flexible, 
and may be so modified as to adapt them to needs of the 
class. This modification is the teacher's part of the plan, 
and it enables her to put her individuality into the task 
and to base her work upon a plan which furnishes a 
logical foundation. 

Some classes will not be able to do all the work sug- 
gested in the outline. With such classes only the more 
important topics should be studied. Occasionally a class 
will be found that can do more than the outline requires. 
In such a case the teacher should make such additions as 
the works of reference at the disposal of the pupils and 
their interests may suggest. In making these additions it 
is often wise to follow the lead of the class. These plans 
are purposely made flexible, that the teacher may have 
opportunity to modify them to suit her needs. The plan 
which leaves nothing for the teacher to do is faulty, because 
it takes from her the best opportunity for real teaching — 
that of putting herself into the work. 

A. Elementary Classes 

63. Method. — Elementary classes may use an elemen- 
tary text-book, or their recitations may be oral. In either 
case it should be in story form. For plan of presentation, 
see History Stories, Sections 59-61. 



86 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

64. Material— What we have said in Section 58 will 
guide in the selection of materials for history stories. In 
most schools the time for this subject is so short that 
nothing beyond American history can be attempted. 
Consequently it is usually wise for the teacher to confine 
the work to topics closely associated with American his- 
tory. The following topics are suggestive of the biog- 
raphies of explorers that may be selected for this grade. 
Begin with simple stories, as Daniel Boone and his pioneer 
life; Cartier, taking up only his explorations in the St. 
Lawrence Gulf and River; Samuel Champlain, (1) the 
story of the founding of Quebec, (2) the discovery of Lake 
Champlain; Father Marquette and the voyage down the 
Mississippi River; Queen Isabella; Columbus, (1) his early 
life, (2) his first voyage, (3) his other voyages; John and 
Sebastian Cabot; Vespucius; Balboa; Ponce de Leon; De 
Soto; Cortez; Pizarro; Sir Francis Drake; Magellan; Cor- 
onado and the Seven Cities; La Salle and Tonti. The 
pupils should become acquainted with the most important 
work of these explorers before taking up a regular text- 
book in history. 

65. Preparation. — Abundant material for these stories 
is found in Volume VI of the history for which this manual 
is prepared. Read carefully Part One, as a general prep- 
aration for the work; then study specifically each story as 
you wish to take it up. The stories need not be presented 
in chronological order, and no attempt should be made at 
this time to connect the work of one explorer with that of 



GENERAL METHODS 87 

another. Let the story of each life stand out clearly by 
itself. 

B. Grammar Grades 

66. Nature of the Work. — If the pupils have received 
such instruction as is indicated in the foregoing sections, 
they will have a knowledge of the lives of the leading 
explorers; but this knowledge is not yet organized. The 
pupils know little or nothing of the relative importance of 
these explorers or the political significance of their work. 
These facts should not be taught, and to assist in their 
organization, the text-book is placed in their hands (See 
Section 6). The comments upon the text-book and its 
use given in that section are of great value, especially to 
the inexperienced teacher. 

Be sure you become familiar with the contents and plan 
of the book before attempting to use it. 

67. Plan.— 1. Territory. Three nations, Spain, Eng- 
land and France, were engaged in exploring the New 
World. The pupils should note carefully the territory 
explored and claimed by each. Whenever the claims con- 
flict, the boundaries claimed by each nation should be 
noted. (See map, Vol. VI, page 108.) 

2. Conditions . — The importance of the early voyages to 
America can not be realized until the conditions under 
which they were made are understood. School histories 
seldom treat these with sufficient fullness, therefore the 
teacher should give the class orally, if necessary, the facts 
found in Chapter II, Volume VI. Several lessons will be 



88 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

necessary to make these facts clear. In teaching them, 
emphasize the geographical features, and make frequent 
use of maps. 

3. Cause and Effect. — Events should now be pre- 
sented in their logical sequence, and this will lead at once 
to the tracing of causes to their effects. Nowhere in his- 
tory is this more clearly shown than in tracing the events 
which led to the discovery of America. If the pupils are 
properly led up to Columbus's first voyage, they realize 
that America was to be discovered in the near future, 
whether by Columbus or some other navigator. He was 
not only impelled by his own desire, but also pushed into 
the open ocean by force of circumstances. These were the 
causes which led to the voyage; the discovery of a new 
world was the chief result. But no sooner is that result 
obtained than it becomes a most potent cause leading to 
the thousand and one effects which go to make up Amer- 
ican history. Bear this in mind from the beginning and 
see that your lessons are logically connected. 

4. Order of Procedure. — At first the explorers should 
be studied by nationalities, and since the Spanish 
were the first in the field, we should begin with them. 
Follow with the English; then with the French and the 
Dutch. 

After the period has been covered in this way, review, 
taking up the explorers who were contemporaneous, as 
Champlain and Hudson; Cortez, Magellan and Verrazno. 
For arrangement, see the table on page 14. The pupils 



GENERAL METHODS 89 

should construct a table somewhat like this as the review 
proceeds. 1 

68. A Type Study. — Columbus is the most prominent 
of all explorers, therefore the pupils should make a thorough 
study of his life and work. 

For topics to be taken up, see Volume VIII, page 491. 
For material additional to that in the text-book, see Volume 
VI, Chapter III. 

In assignment of lessons study the questions connected 
with the outline. If you can gather the class about the 
picture (Volume IV, Frontispiece), its study will add much 
interest to the work. This is a reproduction of one of the 
world's great historic paintings. The pictures of Julius 
Caesar and Benjamin Franklin, Vol. VIII, page 448 and fol- 
lowing, show how the pupils can place the chief events of 
Columbus's life in graphic form. The plan is suggestive; 
pictures on other plans can be made as well. The portrait is 
difficult to draw, and it would be better to use pictures. 

After the study is completed have the pupils prepare a 
written review. This should contain all the facts learned, 
arranged in their proper order and relation. This review 
does not need to be written at one sitting. It will usually 
be better to allow the pupils to spend several recitation 
periods upon it, so that they can bring the work to the 
highest degree of perfection of which they are capable. 
Allow them to illustrate their papers if they desire to do so. 

1 Note — This plan omits the Norsemen, because all that Is necessary in refer- 
ence to them is to note the fact of their early voyages. 



90 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

69. Other Lessons.— The plan for the study of Colum- 
bus will serve for the study of other explorers. Those who 
should receive particular attention are Balboa, DeSoto, 
Cortez, Pizarro and Coronado, among the Spaniards; the 
Cabots, Sir John Hawkins, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir 
Francis Drake, among the English; Cartier, Champlain, 
LaSalle, Marquette and Joliet, among the French; Magellan 
and Vespucius, among the Portuguese; and Henry Hudson, 
among the Dutch. If there is time, those of less impor- 
tance can be studied, but it is better to make a thorough 
study of those named than to touch lightly upon a large 
number. 

THE COLONIES 

A. Elementary Classes 

70. Transition from Biography to History. — Stories 
should not be repeated at frequent intervals, and after 
the class has had a number of biographies it is well to 
introduce stories in which some historical fact has the most 
prominent place. Many stories, especially suitable for this 
purpose can be selected from the lives of the early colonists. 
The teacher who has access to Alice Morse Earle's " Colonial 
Children" will find in it an abundance of material that will 
interest the younger classes, while the volumes of this work 
contain material for the older classes. At first let the his- 
tory stories occupy the time occasionally — perhaps once a 
week — and as the class becomes prepared for them increase 
their frequency and advance them in grade. 



GENERAL METHODS 91 

71. A Type. — The general plan for preparing and telling 
history stories has already been given, but we here give 
an outline for stories of the Pilgrims in order to give more 
specific directions for the preparation and presentation of 
this class of material. Divide the story into three parts 
or three stories, as follows: (1) The emigration to Hol- 
land; (2) the voyage of the Mayflower; (3) the first 
winter. Introduce only the leading facts into each story. 

1. The Emigration to Holland. — For material, read 
Volume IV, Chapters II, III and VIII. These chapters 
will give you a knowledge of that part of English history 
necessary to an understanding of the relation of Puritanism 
to the settlement of the New England Colonies and of the 
relation of the Colonies to England during the existence of 
the Commonwealth. Do not at this time attempt to explain 
Puritanism, for the pupils cannot understand it. State 
simply that these people did not agree with the Church of 
England and because of this they were persecuted by the 
Church and the government. In order to escape this 
persecution they removed to Holland. Describe their life 
in Holland and their reasons for desiring to make a home 
in America. 

2. The Voyage. — Try to give a vivid account of the 
departure. If you can use the picture opposite page 153, 
Volume IV, you will find it of great assistance. This is 
a reproduction of a painting of great historic value, and 
you can learn much from a careful study of it. Describe 
the people and the ship. Dwell upon the long and perilous 



92 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

voyage. Give in simple language the substance of the 
compact signed on the Mayflower. 

3. The First Winter. — Give a vivid account of the 
landing. In order to do this you need to become acquainted 
with the character of the coast around Plymouth, Massa- 
chusetts. Read or recite Mrs. Heman's poem, "The Land- 
ing of the Pilgrims." Lead the pupils to see how the log 
houses were built, the privations that the Pilgrims endured, 
and help them to realize something of the great courage 
and patience which these people displayed under suffering. 
Tell the story of their meeting with the Indians, and the 
treaty of friendship formed. For material, see Volume VI, 
pages 166-175. Longfellow's "The Courtship of Miles 
Standish" contains many charming pictures of the home- 
life of the Pilgrims. Some of these can be read or told 
to the pupils. 

4. Supplemental Stories. — In addition to the stories 
outlined above, accounts of the lives and work of John 
Carver, Elder Brewster, Miles Standish and William Brad- 
ford should be given if there is time. 

72. Other Stories. — The following stories are sug- 
gestive of many others that can be treated in a similar 
manner : 

The Settlement of Jamestown. (1) Beginning of the 
Colony; (2) Captain John Smith; (3) Growth of the Colony 
(See Volume VI, pages 124-140). 

Massachusetts Bay Colony — Volume VI, page 176. 

Customs of the Colonists. (1) In New England — Volume 



GENERAL METHODS 93 

VI, Chapter X; (2) Southern Colonies — Volume VI, 
Chapter VIII. 

Ann Hutchinson. 

Roger Williams. 

The Dutch in New York. 

William Perm and the Settlement of Pennsylvania. 

The Jesuit Missionaries. 

The Early French Settlements. 

Material for all these stories will be found in Volume 
VI, Part Two. 

B. Grammar Grades 

73. Topics to be Considered. — The facts learned 
through the stories about colonization should now be 
systematically arranged into a body of knowledge. The 
problem of colonization is more complex than that of 
exploration, and the teacher must have a complete survey 
of the field if she would plan the work wisely. This survey 
will show the following conditions : 

(1) So far as influence upon the English Colonies is con- 
cerned, the Spanish Colonies have practically disappeared 
from the field, and need little or no attention. 

(2) The Colonies to be considered in order of their 
importance are the English, the French and the Dutch. 

(3) The English Colonies are of three types : the South- 
ern, represented by Virginia; the New England, represented 
by Massachusetts; and the Quaker Colony of Pennsyl- 
vania. Each of these three colonies contributed permanent 
features to our government and to our religious, social and 



94 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

educational institutions. If they are studied thoroughly, 
the others may be passed over lightly. 

(4) The French attempts at colonization are of impor- 
tance because they led to the conflict of claims that brought 
on the French and Indian War. The social and industrial 
contrasts between the French and the English settlers 
should be clearly discerned. 

(5) The Dutch established certain customs that have 
had local permanence in and about New York. 

74. Virginia. — For subject matter supplemental to the 
text-book, see Volume VI, Chapter VII. 

I. Conditions in England at the Beginning of 
the Seventeenth Century. 
II. Grants of Land. 

1. The London Company. 

2. The Plymouth Company. 

Note carefully the boundaries fixed by each of these 
charters. Have the pupils mark these boundaries on an 
outline map. Save the maps; they will be needed later 
on. Note also the provisions for governing the Colonies 
provided by each of these charters. 
III. Jamestown. 

1. Newport's Expedition. 

(a) Character of the Colonists. 

(b) The sealed orders given Newport. 

(c) Experiences of the first summer. 

2. Captain John Smith. 

(a) His imprisonment by Newport. 



GENERAL METHODS 95 

(b) His influence in the Colony, and its effect. 

3. Newport's Return. 

(a) Dissension among the colonists. 

(b) Complaints from the London Company. 

4. Smith's departure. 

5. Lord Delaware. 

(a) New Charters (1609-1612.) 

(b) Order restored. 

6. Sir Thomas Dale. 

(a) The Military Code extended. 

(b) Treaty with the Indians. 

(c) Marriage of Pocahontas (See illustration, 

Volume IV ; Frontispiece). 

(d) Tobacco culture. 

IV. Virginia Under a New Charter. 

1. Rise of the liberal faction in the London Com- 

pany. 

2. The first representative assembly. 

3. Introduction of negro slavery. 

4. Introduction of women. 

5. Importation of indentured servants. 

6. Sir Francis Wyatt. 

(a) Organization of a legislature of two 

houses. 

(b) Indian uprising. 

V. Virginia a Royal Province. 

1. Overthrow of the London Company. 

2. Administration of Sir John Harvey. 



96 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

VI. Virginia Under the Commonwealth. 

1. Influx of loyalists. 

2. Prosperity of the Colony. 

3. New navigation laws. 

VII. Virginia After the Restoration. 

1. Berkley's administration. 

(a) Indian depredations. 

(b) Bacon's rebellion. 

2. Other Governors. 

(a) Suppression of printing. 
. (b) Founding of William and Mary College. 

(c) Removal of capital to Williamsburg. 

3. Administration of Sir Edmund Andrews. 
75. Massachusetts. 

I. Conditions in England. 

1. The Plymouth Company (review the terms of 

its charter). 

2. Previous failures at settlement. 

3. Puritanism — its use and meaning. Explain this 

briefly, but clearly. See Volume IV, Chap- 
ters III and IV. 
II. Plymouth Colony. 

1. Note the distinction between Presbyterians and 

Separatists. Volume IV, page 84. 

2. Life of the Pilgrims in Holland. 

3. Voyage to America. 

4. Settlement at Plymouth. 

(a) The Mayflower compact. 



GENERAL METHODS 97 

(b) John Carver, first governor. 

(c) Hardships and sufferings. 

(d) William Bradford's administration. 

5. Communism abandoned. 

6. Settlement with the London stockholders. 

7. The Colony's Indian policy. 

8. Growth of the Colony. 

III. Massachusetts Bay (See Volume IV, Chapter IX). 

1. Origin of the Colony. 

(a) Settlement near Gloucester. 

(b) John White and the Puritan emigration. 

2. The Charter of the Colony. 

(a) Quarterly Court. 

(b) General Court. 

3. Growth of the Colony. 

4. Removal of the Government to America. 
(a) John Winthrop. 

5. Other settlements. 

6. Concentration of authority. 

(a) Restriction of freemen to church members. 

(b) General assembly abandoned. 

(c) Conferring unwarranted power upon offi- 

cials. 

7. Winthrop deposed. 

8. The Body of Liberties. 

9. Religious dissensions. 

(a) Roger Williams. 

(b) Ann Hutchinson. 



98 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

10. Prosperity of the Colony. 

(a) Industries developed. 

(b) Harvard College founded. 

11. Attacks on the Charter. 

12. Character of the settlers and leaders. 

76. Pennsylvania.— (See Volume VI, pages 240-249; 
also Volume IV, pages 349-350). 

1. Origin of Perm's claim. 

2. Leading characteristics of the Quakers. 

3. Attempt at colonization. 

4. Penn's treaty with the Indians. 

5. Philadelphia founded. 

6. Prosperity and dissensions. 

Compare the forms of government in the three colonies 
studied. 

77. Other Colonies. — The plans given for the three 
typical English colonies should be followed in the study 
of the others; also in the study of French and Dutch settle- 
ments. In following these plans place the outline on the 
blackboard as the subject is developed from day to day 
(See Sections 11-13). 

WARS 

78. Introductory. — The plan of wars and battles is 
clearly defined in the foregoing pages (Sections 43-48). 
These sections should be studied as a part of your prepara- 
tion for teaching this phase of history. Many teachers 
spend too much time on wars to the neglect of more impor- 



GENERAL METHODS 99 

tant topics. The sections referred to show you how to 
avoid that error. Let us add here that before you can 
make a successful plan for teaching a war you must have 
a clear conception of a war as a whole, including its causes 
and results, clearly in mind. 

A. Elementary Classes 

79. War Stories. — War stories should not be told to 
the beginning classes, but pupils of fifth and sixth grades 
can use them to good advantage, provided they are care- 
fully selected and properly told. The teacher should not 
dwell upon the horrors of war nor the carnage of the battle- 
field. Rather let the story be of a general nature, taking 
up the chief causes, the narrative of the event and the 
results. Some of these stories afford the very best means 
of connecting history and literature, as the story of "Paul 
Revere's Ride." Children of the fifth grade should be able 
to read this poem without difficulty. If they cannot, 
read it to them. Lead them to see the pictures in the 
story and to follow the rider in his rapid flight. The result, 
so far as they are interested in it, is that the Americans 
were warned and the British defeated. The story of 
Evangeline may also be told in this grade, but the poem 
should not be read until the pupils reach the eighth grade. 
The sixth grade will enjoy Holmes's "Grandmother's Story 
of the Battle of Bunker Hill," his "Lexington," and espe- 
cially his "Boston Tea Party," but the first two will 
require considerable explanation from the teacher. Most 



100 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

of the Indian Wars are simple and easily understood, 
therefore they can be used to advantage as the first war 
stories. King Philip's War, the Pequod War and Black- 
hawk's War are good illustrations of what may be 
attempted. Other stories suitable for these classes are 
Washington's expedition against the French in 1754; 
Braddock's Campaign; the Capture of Louisburg, and 
Wolfe's Capture of Quebec. 

From the Revolutionary War one might select the 
battles of Lexington and Concord, the Battle of Bunker 
Hill, the Capture of Stony Point, Washington Crossing the 
Delaware, and the Capture of Cornwallis. The stories from 
the War of 1812 that will be the most interesting are Perry's 
battle on Lake Erie and the attack on Fort Henry, which 
gave rise to the song, "The Star Spangled Banner." 

In preparation and presentation follow the plan given 
under History Stories, sections 57-61 ; see also Section 92. 

B. Grammar Grades 

80. General Plan. — Every war has its peculiar features, 
and to teach it successfully you must have a plan prepared 
especially for it. However, the plans for all wars should 
be arranged under three general divisions: the causes; the 
campaigns; the results. The adaptation of the plan to the 
war will be found in the detailed outline of each of these 
divisions. Therefore, for the purpose of showing what 
features these divisions should contain, we give a detailed 
plan for teaching one war. 






GENERAL METHODS 101 

81. The Revolutionary War.— For supplementary 
matter, read Part Three, Volume VI. Pay particular 
attention to the maps and the illustrations. Two of these, 
" Signing the Declaration of Independence," facing page 
313, and " Patrick Henry before the House of Burgesses," 
facing page 357, can be used to excellent advantage. The 
outline maps are such as can be easily reproduced on the 
board or on paper by the pupils. Study carefully 
the colored map facing page 334: this shows the 
territory under English control at the beginning of the 
war. 

I. Causes. — The causes of the American Revolution 
were economic, political and hostile acts, and existed in 
both countries, America and England. 
1. Economic Causes. 

(a) Navigation Acts. These were acts on the restric- 
tion of trade. They cover a period of more than 
a century, and tended to estrange the Colonies 
from the Mother Country. They can be divided 
into two classes: (1) Those restricting trade; (2) 
those restricting manufactures. Acts of the first 
class were — 

(1) Forbidding the colonies to carry on trade 
with any nation except England, and requir- 
ing all exports to be carried in English or 
colonial vessels. 

(2) Requiring all imports to be brought from 
England. 



102 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

(3) Imposing duties on goods exported from one 
colony to another. 
The second-class restricted manufactures by — 

(1) Limiting the number of apprentices taken by 
hat-makers, and prohibiting the exportation 
of hats. 

(2) Placing duties on rum and molasses imported 
from any but the British West Indies. 

(3) Prohibiting the erection of mills for the manu- 
facture of steel and iron; also prohibiting 
exportation of woolen goods from one colony 
to another. 

(b) Taxation. 

(1) The right of internal taxation was claimed by 
the colonies to rest entirely with them. 

(2) The parson's cause. 

(3) Duties and imports; smuggling; Writs of 
Assistance (See section 28). 

(4) Parliament resolves to tax the Colonies. 

(5) The Stamp Act. Connect this with the 
Stamp Act of the United States government 
in 1898. 

(6) The Stamp Act Congress. 

(7) Repeal of the Stamp Act. 

(8) The Declaratory Act. 

(9) The tax on tea. 

The Boston Tea Party. 
Non-Importation Societies. 



GENERAL METHODS 103 

2. Political Causes. — (See Volume IV, pages 449- 
470; also Volume VI, pages 338, 350-366). 

(a) The political situation in England. 

(1) Different political ideals in England and 
America. 

(2) Representation in Parliament. 

(3) Parties and leaders in England. 
The Tory or royalist party. 
The Old Whigs. 

The New Whigs. 

When George III became king, the Old Whigs 

were in control of Parliament. 

(4) The king's relation to existing political 
parties. 

(5) Political reason for attempting to tax the 
Colonies. 

(6) The Townsend Acts. 

(7) Constitutional Relations of England to her 
Colonies. 

The American view of Colonial independ- 
ence. 

The British view. In these differences lay 
the most potent causes of the conflict. 

3. Hostile Acts. — Each act of oppression on part of 
Great Britain was met by one or more acts of resistance 
on part of the colonists. These acts can not be separated 
from the economic and political causes which led to them, 
but for the purpose of placing them clearly before the 



104 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

pupils, each should be considered as a unit. The most 
important of them were — 

(a) Circular letters and petitions. 

(b) Resistance to officers of the Crown in their 
enforcement of the laws. 

(c) Seizure of the sloop " Liberty." 

(d) Non-Importation agreements. 

(e) Quartering of troops by the Government without 
the consent of the Colonists. 

(f) The Boston massacre. 

(g) Burning of the "Gaspee." 
(h) The Boston Tea Party. 

(i) The Five Intolerable Acts by Parliament. 

The Boston Port Bill. 

The Regulating or Charter Act. 

The Administration of Justice Act. 

The Quartering Act (See Volume VI, Section 

262). 

The Quebec Act. 
(j) Organization of militia companies, 
(k) The Battle of Concord and Lexington. 

A Chart 
The conflicting claims of the two parties can be clearly 
shown by placing them opposite each other on a chart. 
This can be made on large sheets of manila paper and 
written with colored crayon or a rubber pen. The pupils 
can copy the chart in their note books. 



GENERAL METHODS 



105 



CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 



CLAIMS ADVANCED BY PARLIAMENT CLAIMS ADVANCED BY THE COL- 
ONIES 

1. The Colonies had paid much 
more than half the expense of the 
war in America. 



1. The great cost of the French 
and Indian War. 



2. The high rate of taxation in 
England. 



3. The authority of Parliament 
to legislate for the Colonies in all 
things whatsoever. 



4. The rate of taxation was 
very light and could in no wise be 
considered a burden. 



5. No country had ever allowed 
its Colonies representation in the 
home government. Moreover, 
according to the plan of repre- 
sentation then in vogue, each 
member of the House of Com- 
mons represented the people at 
large and not any particular con- 
stituency. On this supposition 
the Colonies were represented. 

6. The Navigation Acts had 
conferred favors upon the Col- 
onies by granting bounties on ex- 
ports and excluding from Britain 
the products of other countries 
when these products could be sup- 
plied by the Colonies. 



2. The Colonies had always 
paid their own expenses, and had 
done their share toward paying 
the expenses of the war. 

3. The charters granted the 
Colonies guaranteed to the inhab- 
itants the rights of Englishmen. 
According to the British Constitu- 
tion these rights included the 
right of the Colonists to regulate 
their internal affairs. 

4. It was not the rate of taxa- 
tion but the principle involved, to 
which the Colonists objected. 
This was taxation without repre- 
sentation. 

5. The claim that the Colonies 
were represented in Parliament 
was not made in good faith, and 
was ridiculous. The first Parlia- 
ment in 1265 passed a resolution 
that taxation without representa- 
tion was tyranny. To levy a tax 
on the Colonies would repeal this 
resolution. 



6. The Navigation Acts had 
greatly crippled the commerce of 
the Colonies and prevented the 
development of manufacturing in- 
dustries for which the Colonies 
were well suited, thus working 
hardship upon the settlers. 



106 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



7. In their political organiza- 
tion and acts the Colonies had 
repeatedly exceeded their author- 
ity and set the home government 
at defiance. 



7. The attempt of the king to 
use his Colonies to further his own 
political interests was unjust and 
exasperating, and the measures 
resorted to by the Colonies were 
necessary for the preservation of 
their liberty. 



HOSTILE ACTS 



ON PART OF THE BRITISH 

1. The Stamp Act. 

2. Writs of Assistance. 

3. Declaration Act. 

4. Quartering troops. 

5. Sending troops to Boston. 

6. Boston massacre. 

7. The Five Intolerable Acts. 



ON PART OF THE AMERICANS 

1. Resistance of customs of- 
ficers and other Crown officials. 

2. Opposition to the Writs of 
Assistance. 

3. Destruction of the "Gaspee." 

4. Destruction of Tea. 

5. Treatment of the Tories. 

6. Organization of militia com- 
panies. 

7. The Battle of Concord and 
Lexington. 



COLONIAL ORGANIZATIONS 

1. Non-Importation Societies. 

2. Sons of Liberty. 

3. Committees of Correspondence. 

4. Minute Men. 

5. Colonial Militia. 

6. Massachusetts Town Meeting. 

7. Continental Congress. 

II. Campaigns. 

In the progressive study of the war the best plan is to 
proceed by years. Emphasize only those battles and move- 
ments which are most important. After the ground has 
been covered in this way, review the work and place con- 
temporaneous events side by side. Consult the colored 
charts in Volume VIII, " History in Outline and Picture." 



general methods 107 

1. The First Year of the War, 1775. 

(a) Battle of Concord and Lexington. 

(b) Capture of Ticonderoga. 

(c) Battle of Bunker Hill. 

(d) Washington chosen Commander-in-Chief. 

2. 1776. 

(a) Evacuation of Boston. 

(b) Attack on Charleston, South Carolina. 

(c) Declaration of Independence. 

(d) Operations around New York. 

(e) Washington's retreat through New Jersey. 

(f) Battle of Trenton. 

3. 1777. 

(a) Battle of Princeton. 

(b) Operations around Philadelphia. 

(c) Burgoyne's campaign. 

(d) Arrival of Lafayette. 

(e) Articles of Confederation. 

4. 1778. 

(a) The Winter at Valley Forge. 

(b) The Treaty with France. 

(c) The Conway Cabal. 

(d) The evacuation of Philadelphia. 

(e) Battle of Monmouth. 

(f) Minor operations. 

Newport — Stony Point — Savannah 

5. 1779-1783. 

(a) Capture of a British frigate. 



108 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

(b) The war in the South. 

(c) Benedict Arnold's treason. 

(d) War on the Frontier. 

(e) George Rogers Clark's expedition. 

(f) General Greene in the South. 

(g) Capture of Cornwallis. 
(h) End of the War. 

III. Results. 

With pupils of this grade the far-reaching results of the 
Revolutionary War should not be attempted, for a grasp 
of their meaning requires more extended reasoning than 
the pupils can successfully follow. Deal only with the 
obvious and immediate results. These are — 

1. The Treaty of Peace. 

(a) Members of the Commission. 

(1) From the United States. 

(2) From Great Britain. 

(b) Independence of the United States acknowledged. 

(c) Territorial boundaries fixed. 

(d) Financial considerations. 

2. Devastation of the Country. 

(a) Industries destroyed. 

(b) Foreign trade cut off. 

(c) The country financially bankrupt. 

3. Political Conditions. 

(a) Independent state governments. 

(b) An inadequate central government. 

(c) State jealousies. 






GENERAL METHODS 109 

THE STUDY OF A MILITARY CAMPAIG-N 
87. Reasons for Special Study. — Perhaps in no phase 
of history work can the value of type studies be more 
clearly seen than in the study of military campaigns. A 
thorough study of one in each war enables the class to 
pass over the others lightly. We might think that the 
thorough study of one campaign selected from any war 
would suffice for all the other wars in American history. 
This conclusion would not be justified, because conditions 
change with time; therefore some typical campaign should 
be selected for each war. The study of a campaign like 
that of a war can be divided into three parts : the causes, 
the campaign itself and the results. 

Since we have a plan for the study of the Revolutionary 
War, we will select a campaign of that war for our type 
study. 

82. Burgoyne's Campaign.— This campaign is an excel- 
lent unit for study, because it is complete in itself, because 
it shows the importance of geographical conditions, and 
because its results were among the most far-reaching of 
those related to the military events of our history. 
I. Causes. 

1. General Conditions. — In leading up to the study of 
this campaign you should review the events of the 
two previous years, and give special attention to the 
disposal of the British and American forces at the 
time. In doing this, make frequent references to the 
map. 



110 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

2. Previous Failures of the British. 

(a) Carleton's attempted invasion of New York. 

(b) Failure to dislodge Washington from Morristown 
Heights. 

3. Necessity of establishing a line of forts from New 
York to Canada and thus cutting off the New Eng- 
land States from the others. 

4. Geographical Features. 

(a) The valley of the Hudson and Lake Champlain 
had for centuries been the highway of armies. 
It was the natural route through this part of the 
country. 

(b) In the French and Indian War armies had trav- 
ersed this route successfully , and this gave reason- 
able assurance that another army could do the 
same. The difficulties arising from distances to 
be travelled, the lack of roads, and the moun- 
tainous region to be traversed were either over- 
looked or underestimated. 

II. The Campaign. 
1. The General Plan. 

(a) Organization and despatch of Burgoyne's army 
to Canada. 

(b) Cooperation of Canadians and Indians — total 
army of 8000. 

(c) Cooperation of Howe in New York. 
Burgoyne was to move southward from the St. 
Lawrence River, and Howe northward from 



GENERAL METHODS 111 

New York -until they met, the expected place 
of meeting being at or near Albany. 

2. The March to Ticonderoga. 

(a) Character of Burgoyne's forces — British, Hes- 
sians, Canadians, Indians. 

(b) Capture of Ticonderoga. 

3. From Ticonderoga to the Hudson. 

(a) Retreat of the Americans under St. Clair. 

(b) Battle of Hubbardton; its importance. 

(c) Burgoyne's situation. 

(1) There were no roads over which to move his 
artillery and baggage. 

(2) His force was weakened by the detachment 
left to guard Ticonderoga. 

(3) His soldiers were unaccustomed to manual 
labor and were ill suited to the tasks of 
building roads and bridges. 

(4) Officers and men were in a strange country. 

(5) The British were surrounded by an unseen 
foe consisting of men thoroughly versed in 
woodcraft, familiar with every mile of the 
route over which the army was moving. 
They were also expert hunters and rifle men. 

(6) The progress of the army was very slow, 
sometimes not more than a mile a day. 

(7) Supplies were running short. 

(8) The Canadians and Indians were beginning 
to desert. 



112 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

(9) Americans from all directions were hurrying 
to join General Schuyler's forces at Fort 
Edward. 

4. The Battle of Bennington. 

(Two of the cannon captured in this battle are in the 
Vermont state capitol at Montpelier.j 

5. The American Position. — The American forces march 
toward Saratoga. General Schuyler is superseded by 
General Gates. 

6. The Surrender. 

(a) Washington keeps Howe from leaving New York. 

(b) Burgoyne's critical condition. Surrounded by 
vastly superior numbers, he could neither advance 
nor retreat. 

(c) Battles of Bemis Heights and Freeman's Farm. 

(d) Burgoyne's surrender. 

7. St. Leger's Expedition. 
III. Results. 

1. British Chagrin. — Burgoyne was placed in command 
of the largest and best equipped army sent to America 
during the war. Its capture was a serious blow to British 
military prestige. 

2. General Encouragement. — The brilliant victory at 
Saratoga caused general rejoicing throughout the Colonies 
and strengthened every American's allegiance to the cause 
of independence. 

3. Prestige Abroad. — This victory gave the American 
cause a standing before the governments of Europe which 



GENERAL METHODS 113 

it had not before attained, and led to an alliance with 
France. 

4. One of the Decisive Battles of the World. — The cap- 
ture of Burgoyne's forces was the turning point in the 
war, and as such it was the event that determined the 
establishing in America of a free and independent 
nation. Because of this, the Battle of Saratoga is con- 
sidered one of the fifteen decisive battles in the world's 
history. 

83. Presentation. — The success of a type study like 
this depends upon the teacher's ability to present it in 
an interesting and forceful manner Study the campaign 
until you are thoroughly acquainted with all phases of it. 
Get into your mind vivid pictures of the country as it 
was then, of the British army on the march — first up the 
lake in boats, then through the forest. Get an equally 
clear picture of the American forces — without uniforms, 
poorly organized, but intensely in earnest, and skilful as 
marksmen. See them destroying at night the roads and 
bridges that the British constructed during the day. Bur- 
goyne was defeated before he crossed the Hudson. 

Get a good idea of the action in each of the battles, 
and of the work of Benedict Arnold, Philip Schuyler and 
Daniel Morgan, the American commanders to whom the 
success of the engagements was due. 

Give as complete an account of the battles of Hubbard- 
ton and Bennington as the time will permit, and give a 
similar account of St. Leger's expedition. 



114 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Tell the story. It matters not what the grade of your 
class is. Draw your map as you talk, placing upon it only 
those points to which you need to call attention. The 
extent to which you can hold the interest of your class 
is the measure of your success. 

Have the pupils repeat the story the next day. End 
the exercise with a written review in which the pupils will 
draw a map, to use as you used yours in telling the story. 

84. Other Campaigns. — The following campaigns are 
suggested for type studies in American history: 

In the French and Indian War, Braddock's campaign 
and Wolfe's campaign against Quebec. If there is time 
for only one, take the latter, because of its greater impor- 
tance. 

In the War of 1812, Perry's battle on Lake Erie. 

In the Mexican War, General Scott's campaign against 
the City of Mexico. 

In the Civil War, Lee's invasion of the Northern states, 
ending with the Battle of Gettysburg; the campaign against 
Vicksburg, or Sherman's march to the sea. All are good; 
choose the one you like best. 

FORMING- THE NATIONAL, GOVERNMENT 

85. Difficulties to be Overcome.— The history of 
the formation of our government presents a number of 
difficulties to most classes of the grammar grades, and the 
teacher who would make a success of this part of the work 
must foresee the obstacles in the way and remove them. 
Chief among these difficulties are — 



GENERAL METHODS 115 

1. Failure to Understand the Subject. — The under- 
lying principles of our government are not readily grasped 
by children unless they can be explained by concrete illus- 
trations. Therefore some phase of local government should 
be used to explain similar phases of national government. 
(See Sections 52-54.) 

2. Failure to Connect the Constitution with Pre- 
vious Measures. — Many pupils look upon the Constitution 
as something entirely new to the convention which framed 
it, whereas it was the outgrowth of nearly two centuries 
of political development. 

3. Attempting Too Much. — With classes below the 
high school only the leading facts should be studied and 
these should be made plain. Be sure that the pupils get 
clear ideas. Use concrete illustrations whenever necessary. 

86. Early Steps Toward Union.— The Union senti- 
ment began to develop soon after the New England Col- 
onies were settled, and in this beginning we find the origin 
of the movements which led up to the formation of its 
Federal Government ; therefore all these movements should 
be considered. The class has noticed them in the order 
of their occurrence, but now that you have arrived at the 
point where the Constitution is to be considered, they 
should be separated from the rest of the history and con- 
sidered together, taking each in the order of its occurrence. 

1. Colonial Governments. 

(a) The New England type (See Volume VI, Sections 
112, 121, 123, 128). 



116 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

(b) The Virginia type (See Volume VI, Sections 69, 
72, 82). It will be helpful to read all of Chapters 
IX and X in that volume. 

2. The New England Confederation (Volume VI, 
Sections 147-149). 

3. The Albany Plan (Volume VI, Section 227, page 304) . 

4. The Stamp Act Congress (Volume VI, Sections 245, 
246). 

5. Committees of Correspondence (Volume VI, Sec- 
tion 260). 

87. Continental Congress.— With the meeting of this 
congress political relations with the Mother County were 
virtually severed, notwithstanding the fact that the first 
congress sent a final appeal to Great Britain. The Col- 
onies .were now banded together in a common cause, and 
the sentiment for union was greater than that for allegiance 
to Great Britain. (Volume VI, Section 265.) 

1. The First Congress. 

(a) Declaration of Rights. 

(b) Non-Importation agreement. 

(c) Provision for the next congress. 

2. The Second Congress.— This body continued until 
the formation of the government under the Constitution. 
It is not necessary here to consider all of its measures. 
Those especially relating to the formation of the govern- 
ment are — 

(a) The Declaration of Independence (this should be 
read to the class). 



j 



GENERAL METHODS 117 

(b) Financial measures, especially those providing 
for the issue of paper money. 

(c) The Articles of Confederation. 

(d) Creation of a public domain. 

(e) Ordinance of 1787. 

88. Conditions at the Close of the War.— These 
conditions are important because they were the impelling 
force which led to the Constitutional Convention. (Vol- 
ume VI, Chapter XIX.) 

1. State Governments. — These were formed after the 
adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and were 
based on the charters of the respective colonies. 

2. Finances. — The paper money issued by Congress was 
worthless, and neither the states nor the nation could pay 
their debts. 

3. Commerce. — Commerce had been destroyed by the 
war, and the states, by placing duties upon exports to and 
imports from other states, were hindering its revival. 

4. Unrest. — The States were jealous of each other, the 
army had not been paid, poverty and hardship developed 
a general feeling of dissatisfaction among the people, which 
meant disaster to the new government unless it could be 
checked. 

89. The Constitutional Convention. — (Volume VI, 
Chapter XX.) 

1. The Annapolis Convention. 

(a) States represented. 

(b) Results. 



118 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



2. Constitutional Convention. 

(a) The call. 

(b) The members. 

(c) The compromises. 

(d) The finished work. 

90. The Constitution.— Discuss only the leading feat- 
ures, as the three departments of government and the 
chief duties of each; Congress, and how the members of 
each branch are chosen, and the formation of the Supreme, 
Circuit and District Courts. Compare the leading features 
of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution, as 
follows : 



THE CONSTITUTION 

1. The constitution provides a 
national government based more 
or less on the will of the people. 

2. Representation in the lower 
house of congress is based upon 
the population of the state. Each 
state has two senators. Each 
member of congress has one vote. 

3. The supreme court has juris- 
diction over all disputes between 

states. 

4. No state is allowed to coin 
and issue money. 



THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERA- 
TION 

1. The articles pledged a league 
of the states. 



2. Congress consisted of only 
one branch; each state, whatever 
its number of delegates, had only 
one vote. 



3. Congress decided disputes 
between states. 



4. Congress shared with the 
states the power to coin and issue 
money. 



5. The power to regulate com- 
merce and raise revenue is vested 
in the national government. 



5. The power to regulate com- 
merce and raise revenue was 
wholly under the control of the 
states. 



GENERAL METHODS 119 

6. Congress has power to de- 6. Congress could declare war, 
clare war and to raise and main- but the power to raise troops was 
tain an army and navy. If neces- within the control of the states. 
sary, it can draft men for this 

purpose. 

7. Congress now has power to 7. Congress could not collect 
levy and collect taxes. taxes from the states. 

8. Congress can authorize and 8. Congress could not compel 
execute all laws necessary for the observance of laws, 
carrying into execution the pow- 
ers conferred upon it. 

9. Congress has power to guar- 9. The payment of borrowed 
antee the payment of loans con- money could not be guaranteed, 
tracted by the United States. 

10. The constitution has been 10. Congress could declare 
found adequate to every emer- everything, but could do nothing, 
gency that has arisen. 

Literature 
91. Value.— The use of literature with history lends 
interest to the subject and at the same time enables the 
teacher to introduce valuable lessons on the moral effects 
of leading acts and events. The chief American poets, 
Longfellow, Bryant, Whittier, Emerson, Lowell and 
Holmes have clothed some of these lessons in imperishable 
language, and when their poems are associated with the 
events which they describe they impress the results of those 
events upon the memory as nothing else can. To illus- 
trate: what is comparable, in portraying the results of the 
Battle of Concord and Lexington, to Emerson's immortal 
stanza : 

By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood 

And fired the shot heard round the world 



120 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

What more forcefully illustrates the spirit that has 
always actuated American patriots than Longfellow's lines 
from "Paul Revere's Ride": 

A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door, 
And a word that shall echo forevermore! 
For, borne on the night-wind of the Past, 
Through all our history to the last, 
In the hour of darkness and peril and need, 
The poeple will waken and listen to hear 
The hurrying hoofbeats of that steed 
And the midnight message of Paul Revere. 

These two illustrations are typical of many others that 
might be cited. The teacher should realize the value of 
those portions of our literature which relate to history, 
and then use these selections in connection with the events 
which they describe. 

A. Elementary Classes 

92. Literature and History Stories.— Many excellent 
history stories can be obtained from literature. For 
younger classes Hawthorne's "Grandfather's Chair" fur- 
nishes a large number that are of special interest, and they 
are so simple that they require little or no adaptation. 
Classes in the fifth grade will enjoy stories from Cooper's 
works, and selected chapters from " The Leather Stocking- 
Tales" can be read to them with excellent results. These 
readings serve a double purpose; they convey information 
and also lead the pupils to acquire an interest in Cooper, 
so that later they will read all his stories. 

Under the plans for history stories (Sections 57, 58) , a 
number of selections are named and their place in history 



GENERAL METHODS 121 

indicated. You should follow these suggestions for other 
selections which you wish to introduce. If you tell the 
story of the battles of Concord and Lexington, the pupils 
should memorize Emerson's " Concord Hymn." They 
should also read or have read to them "Paul Revere's 
Ride/' but the study of this poem would better be deferred 
until the fifth or sixth grade. 

For the position of our most prominent writers, see 
Volume VI, page 320; Volume VII, pages 356-427; Volume 
VIII, page 44. These references will show what writers 
can be used in the different periods. 

B. Grammar Grades 

93. Literature and the Text-Book. — Many of the 
stories and poems used in the elementary classes should 
be repeated and elaborated in the grammar grades, as in 
the course of their study the pupils reach the events to 
which they are respectively related. In the elementary 
classes the story is simply told and some poems are mem- 
orized. In the more advanced classes these selections 
should be used in a different manner. In the study the 
meaning of the selection in its relation to the event should 
be brought out, something of the author's life should be 
given, and if the story of the writing of the selection can 
be told it adds very much to the interest of the lesson. 

To make this point clear let us again refer to the selec- 
tions previously cited. In the elementary class the pupils 
memorized the " Concord Hymn;" when they study the 



122 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

battle from the text-book they should not only repeat the 
hymn but also learn the occasion for its being written, and 
try to comprehend something of its wonderful meaning. 
They may have previously read "Paul Revere 's Ride," 
but they should now review the poem with map in hand 
that they may see clearly the importance of Revere' s 
work. They should also be led to see the probable conse- 
quences had the Americans not been warned of the approach 
of the British. More than all, they should understand that 
the entire poem was written for the purpose of setting 
before the people the thought contained in the last twelve 
lines, and when they learn that the poem was written soon 
after the outbreak of the Civil War this fact is clearly seen. 

Use the selections given in the following section in a 
similar manner. For the study of the biography of an 
author see the outlines on Frank] in and Longfellow, Volume 
VIII, pages 454 and 463, also study the illustrations 
accompanying these outlines. 

94. Material. — The following selections will be found 
excellent for increasing the interest in the history lessons; 
they will doubtless suggest others which can be added as 
time permits. 

1. The Colonial Period. — Franklin's "Poor Richard's 
Almanac" and his "Autobiography;" "The Skeleton in 
Armor," Longfellow, and "The Landing of the Pilgrims," 
Mrs. Hemans. 

2. The Revolutionary War.— "The Concord Hymn, :! 
Emerson; "Paul Revere's Ride," Longfellow; "The Rising 



GENERAL METHODS 123 

of 76," Read; "The Boston Tea Party" and "Grand- 
mother's Story of Bunker-Hill Battle," Holmes; "The Song 
of Marion's Men," Bryant. 

3. The War of 1812.— "Old Ironsides," Holmes; "The 
Star Spangled Banner," Key. 

4. The Mexican War.— "The Angels of Buena Vista," 
Whittier; selections from "Biglow Papers," First Series, 
Lowell. 

5. The Civil War.— "Our Country's Call," Bryant; 
"Barbara Fritchie," Whittier; "The Cumberland" and 
"Killed at the Ford," Longfellow; "Dying Words of Stone- 
wall Jackson," Lanier; "Voyage of the Good Ship Union," 
Holmes; Lincoln's Gettysburg Address; "The Death of 
Lincoln," Bryant; "The Blue and the Gray." 

6. Miscellaneous. — The following selections are not 
closely identified with any special period, but they are 
important and should be studied before the history work 
is completed. "The Arsenal at Springfield," "The Build- 
ing of the Ship," "The Courtship of Miles Standish," and 
"Evangeline," Longfellow; "William Lloyd Garrison," 
"Massachusetts to Virginia," "The Poor Voter on Election 
Day," "Bartholdi's Statue" and selections from "Snow- 
Bound," Whittier; "Union and Liberty," Holmes; "Colum- 
bus," "The Present Crisis," Lowell; "The American Flag," 
Drake; "America," Smith. 

Art 
95. Use of Pictures and Statuary. — Every child 
loves a picture or a statue, provided its meaning comes 



124 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

within the child's comprehension. Painting and sculpture 
have always been valuable aids to the study of history, 
since they portray historic scenes and leading characters 
in imperishable materials, and the teacher should make all 
possible use of these aids in connection with the history 
work. However, before she can do this successfully she 
must make such a study of the picture or statue as will 
enable her to call attention to the leading features and to 
explain their meaning to the class. She should also be 
able to give a brief sketch of the artist and call attention 
to some of his other works. 

96. Material. — Of the forty-eight colored pictures in 
this work, sixteen relate directly or indirectly to American 
history. The brief description appearing with each picture 
gives an idea of its purpose and its place in history. In 
addition to the colored pictures there are hundreds of half- 
tones and etchings, each telling its own story. In the best 
text-books there are also many illustrations of historic value, 
and, as in the volumes of this work, the illustrations in the 
text-book are placed there to assist the pupil in understand- 
ing the subject-matter. They should not be passed over 
unnoticed, but should be studied as the author intended. If 
the teacher wishes to supply the class with copies of an 
important picture, the pictures can be procured from the 
Perry Pictures Company, Maiden, Mass., for a penny each. 

A. Elementary Classes 

97. Picture Stories. — Select a picture of historic 
significance, as "The Return of the Mayflower," Volume 



GENERAL METHODS 125 

VI, page 170. The picture should be simple, so that the 
pupils can easily comprehend its meaning, and the best 
results are obtained by placing a copy in the hands of 
each pupil. 

Supposing your lesson is upon this picture, we will 
assume that the pupils have been told the story of the 
Pilgrims and their landing at Plymouth, so that they know 
about the " Mayflower." What meaning did the artist 
intend to convey by this picture, and what lesson should 
the pupils glean from its study? Evidently the purpose 
of the artist was to portray the patience and resolution 
of the Pilgrims which enabled them to devote their lives 
to the consummation of a great purpose, even though in 
accomplishing that purpose they must leave the land of 
their birth and submit to the dangers and privations of 
pioneer life. 

All of this and more is represented in the figures in the 
foreground. Study their attitude, the expression upon 
their faces, the simple garb and the far-off look as they 
gaze upon the distant ship disappearing beneath the hori- 
zon. Lead the pupils to see these features in the picture 
by skilful questions. 

Who are the people in the foreground? 

Can you see the "Mayflower"? Where is it? 

What other people appear in the picture? 

Look at the faces; what does their expression tell you? 

Do you think these people are sorry that they did not 
go back on the ship? Why do you think so? 



126 UNITED STATES HISTORY 

What did the Pilgrims do after the "Mayflower" left? 

A brief sketch of the artist may be added to the lesson, 
but this is not essential. This picture is admirably adapted 
to this sort of study because it is so simple, and the figures 
in the foreground tell the entire story. 

Many other pictures can be studied in a similar manner. 
Determine what you wish the pupils to see in the picture, 
and then lead them to see it by skilful questioning. After 
the picture has been studied in this way have the pupils 
tell the story that it conveys; or the teacher may tell the 
story first and have the pupils tell it after her. 

B. Grammar Grades 
98. Plan. — In grammar grades pictures and statuary 
should receive more systematic attention. Complete plans 
for conducting picture studies in these grades are found in 
Volume VIII, page 491 and pages 496-499. 



PAET THREE 

Supplement 




Photograph of Roosevelt, Copyright by Underwood & Underwood; Taft, by Moffett Studio; Cannon, 
by Pach Bros.; others, by Clinedinst. 

CONTEMPORARY AMERICANS 

Divided in politics— united in their devotion to the Great Republic. 



CHAPTER I 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF WOODROW 
WILSON 

1. A New Political Era,— With the inauguration 
of President Wilson, the government of the United 
States, for the first time since Cleveland's second 
term, passed completely into the hands of the 
Democrats. President Wilson began his term of 
office with a large majority in the House and a 
small but safe majority in the Senate. The Demo- 
cratic leaders who had opposed Wilson's nomination 
now recognized him as the leader of their party, 
and Wilson's program became their program. 

Yet the President's inaugural address sounded 
a warning note. The Democratic victory, he said, 
" means much more than the mere success of a 
party. ... No one can mistake the purpose 
for which the nation now seeks to use the Demo- 
cratic party. It seeks to use it to interpret a 
change in its own plans and point of view. . . . 
Our life contains every great thing, and contains 
it in rich abundance. But the evil has come with 
the good, and much, fine gold has been corroded. 
At last a vision has been vouchsafed us. . . . 
We see the bad with the good, the debased and 

3 



4 ADMINISTRATION OF WOODROW WILSON 

decadent with the sound and vital. Our duty is 
to cleanse, to reconsider, to restore, to correct the 
evil without impairing the good, to purify and 
humanize every process of our common life with- 
out weakening or sentimentalizing it." This ad- 
dress the President read in person to Congress, 
thus reviving the custom of Washington and 
John Adams. 

2. Achievements in Legislation. — The President's 
inaugural address further specified some of the 
evils to be corrected, including the tariff, the bank- 
ing and currency system, and the trusts. Within 
two years President Wilson, in the face of con- 
siderable opposition, even from members of his 
own party, succeeded in forcing through Congress 
a series of bills which were designed to remedy 
some of the faults of the existing financial and 
economic system. Congress was in continuous 
session from April 7, 1913, to October 24, 1914, a 
period of one year, six months and seventeen days ; 
this was the longest continuous session ever held 
by Congress. 

1. The Tariff. — Immediately after his inaugu- 
ration President Wilson summoned Congress in 
special session to meet on April 7. Six months 
later, on October 3, he signed the Underwood- 
Simmons tariff bill, which represented the chief 
labor of the session. In contrast to the Payne- 




O'er the land of 

the free 



SEEN BY FRANCIS 
SCOTT KEY ON THE 

MORNING OF 
SEPTEMBER 15,1814 
OVER FORT McHENRY 




Mi A \ i:i4\A \ \ 



v^V- And the home of 



the -brave 




KATE ARFLMANM 



1915 



OLD GLORY, PAST AND PRESENT 




WOODROW WILSON 



I 



BEARER OF A NATION'S BURDEN. 

No other President since Abraham Lincoln has faced 
problems of such magnitude as have confronted Wood- 
row Wilson. Within two years after he took office he 
had secured the enactment of notable legislation affect- 
ing the tariff, the trusts and the federal banking system. 
Hardly were these domestic problems out of the way 
when the outbreak of the great War of the Nations 
added enormously to his burden. On the President 
rested the responsibility for preserving the nation's 
rights and honor, and also for keeping the United States 
free from entanglement with any of the warring nations. 
The President protested to Germany against the sub- 
marine attacks on merchant ships, and challenged the 
right of the Germans to sink the Lusitania, the Arabic 
and other ships. After months of negotiation he won 
his point and the assurance that passenger ships would 
not be sunk by submarines except under the accepted 
rules of war. 

His years as President were the climax of a life of 
devotion to high ideals. Woodrow Wilson was born 
on December 28, 1856, at Staunton, Virginia. After his 
graduation from Princeton in 1879, he studied and prac- 
ticed law, but soon gave this up for the more congenial 
pursuits of writing and teaching. His books on Con- 
gressional Government and The State are standards, and 
are the text-books in many schools and colleges. His 
most ambitious work is The History of the American 
People, a comprehensive account in five large volumes. 

As a teacher of history and political economy, Wilson 
won marked success in turn at Bryn Mawr College, 
Johns Hopkins University, Wesleyan University, and 
finally at Princeton University, where he was professor 
from 1890 to 1902. In the latter year he was elected 
president of the university, being the first layman to 
hold this office. His presidency was notable for reforms 
in the curriculum and in administration; probably the 
most interesting was the introduction of the preceptorial 
system, under which the students are given closer 
personal attention by members of the faculty. In 1910 
he was elected governor of New Jersey, a position in 
which he demonstrated his ability as a popular leader, 
and showed many statesmanlike qualities. As the 
Democratic governor of a state normally Republican, 
he was logically a prominent candidate for the Demo- 
cratic nomination for President in 1912. He was nomi- 
nated, and after an exciting three-cornered campaign 
was chosen to the greatest elective office in the world. 



ACHIEVEMENTS IN LEGISLATION / 

Aldrich Act of 1909 and all the tariff bills passed 
since the Civil War, this act fixed many duties for 
revenue rather than for protection. Under the old 
tariff the rates had been high and complicated, both 
ad valorem and specific duties being levied ; most of 
the rates under the new act were ad valorem. The 
new tariff placed raw wool on the free list, 
and reduced by about one-half the duties levied 
on woolen manufactures. The removal of the duty 
on sugar was bitterly opposed by the congressmen 
from Louisiana and from the western states which 
produce beet sugar. The President, however, stood 
firm for free sugar, and it was finally provided 
that after May 1, 1916, sugar should be imported 
free of duty. A total of 938 rates were reduced, 86 
were increased, and 307 remained unchanged. The 
average duty established by the Underwood-Sim- 
mons Act was 26 per cent, or about one-half of 
the average under the Payne- Aldrich Act. 

The Income Tax. — The tariff law was passed in 
obedience to the call of the people for cheaper raw 
materials and manufactured goods used by the 
poor and middle classes, and for a greater tax on 
the rich. To compensate the loss of revenue caused 
by the changes in duties, Congress added to the 
tariff bill a section providing an income tax, 
authorized by the Sixteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution. The tax is graduated from one to 



8 ADMINISTRATION OF WOODROW WILSON 

seven per cent, all incomes below $3,000 being 
exempt. The exemption on the joint income of a 
hnsband and wife who are living together is $4,000. 
The machinery for collecting the income tax is 
complex, but so far as possible it collects taxes at 
the source — the employer pays the tax for his em- 
ployee, the tenant for his landlord, etc. 

2. Banking and Currency. — The banking and 
currency system of the United States dated from 
1863. It was in the beginning merely an expedient, 
and it soon became inadequate. A more flexible 
currency and better control of bank reserves were 
the essentials of a new system. The President was 
anxious to secure the passage of a new banking 
law before the end of the special session, and 
committees of Congress were considering banking 
problems while the tariff bill was being pushed 
through its various stages. The Federal Eeserve 
Act was not signed by President Wilson, however, 
until December 23, three weeks after the special 
session ended and the regular session began. The 
law became effective at once, but a whole year 
passed before the organization of the new system 
was completed. 

Under this law of 1913 twelve federal reserve 
banks were organized — at Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, Eichmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. 
Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San 



ACHIEVEMENTS IN LEGISLATION y 

Francisco. Each national bank subscribed six per 
cent of its own capital and surplus to the stock 
of the new reserve bank. The reserve bank does 
not deal with the public but with its member banks, 
for whom it rediscounts notes and other commercial 
paper which they have bought. The reserve bank 
may pay for these notes out of its available funds, 
or it may issue federal reserve notes. 

3. The Trusts.— The third feature of the Ad- 
ministration's legislative program concerned the 
regulation of trusts. Congress adjourned for the 
holidays on December 23, 1913, and in January, 
when it met again, the first bills considered were 
the five trust bills supported by President "Wilson. 
In their final form these w^ere reduced to two, the 
Clayton Act and the Trade Commission Act. 
The Clayton Act was designed to supplement the 
Sherman Anti-Trust Law of 1890, and defines 
more carefully various legal and illegal actions. 
The law prohibits price-cutting, except under cer- 
tain unusual conditions, forbids agreements be- 
tween manufacturer and dealer by which the latter 
agrees to handle only the former's product, and 
prohibits holding companies wdien their effect is 
to lessen competition. Interlocking directorates 
are also prohibited. 

The Trade Commission Act created a commis- 
sion of five members, to be appointed by the Presi- 



10 ADMINISTRATION OF WOODEOW WILSON" 

dent for terms of seven years, at an annual salary 
of $10,000. Its powers over large corporations 
engaged in interstate trade correspond to those of 
the Interstate Commerce Commission over common 
carriers. Its decisions are subject to review by 
the courts as to points of law, but not as to points 
of fact. The creation of the commission was 
generally approved by economists and business 
men, and was accepted as a great step forward in 
the organization of American industry. 

3. Seventeenth Amendment. — In May, 1912, Con- 
gress passed an amendment to the federal Consti- 
tution providing for the direct election of senators 
by the voters of each state. This amendment was 
the seventeenth; the sixteenth, relating to the 
federal income tax, had been proclaimed a part of 
the Constitution by President Taft. All but twelve 
of the states ratified the seventeenth amendment, 
and on May 31, 1913, it was declared in force. 

4. Opening of the Panama Canal. — The end of 
1913 saw the practical completion of the Panama 
Canal. There remained only a few details, and 
the difficulties caused by the slides in Culebra Cut, 
to delay the formal opening. The Culebra Cut, by 
order of President Wilson, was renamed Gaillard 
Cut, in honor of Lieutenant- Colonel David D. Gail- 
lard, who was in charge of this section of the work 
until August, 1913, when a complete nervous break- 



OPENING OF THE PANAMA CANAL 11 

down from overwork forced him to ask leave of 
absence. Gaillard died on December 5, in his 
fifty-fourth year, giving his life to his country just 
as bravely as any soldier on a battlefield. 

The first vessel to pass through Gatun Lake and 
the locks was the government tug Gatun, on Sep- 
tember 26, and on October 10 President Wilson, by 
pressing an electric button in the White House, 
gave the signal for blowing up the Gomboa dike, 
which held back the waters of the lake from 
Culebra Cut. May 10, 1914, was the date origi- 
nally set for the opening of the canal to commerce, 
but the actual opening was delayed until August 15. 
On the latter date the government steamship Ancon 
made a trip through the canal, from ocean to 
ocean, in nine hours. On the very next day several 
merchant steamships passed through the canal, 
and in spite of the interference to commerce caused 
by the outbreak of the war in Europe, traffic in- 
creased steadily. 

The total cost to the United States, from the 
purchase of the rights of the French company in 
1902 to the completion of the canal in 1914, was 
about $525,000,000. This included $40,000,000 paid 
to the French company and $10,000,000 to the Ee- 
public of Panama. The successful completion of 
the work was due largely to George Washington 
Goethals, the army engineer who was in charge 



12 



ADMINISTRATION OF WOODROW WILSON 



of construction after 1907, and his efficient staff. 
In recognition of his services he was promoted in 
1909 from the rank of major to that of colonel, 
and in 1915 was created major-general by special 

act of Congress. 
Much credit also 
belongs to Gen- 
eral William C. 
Gorgas, who was 
in charge of sani- 
tation. He, too, 
was made major- 
general in 1915 
by Congress. 

Canal Tolls. — 
On August 24, 
1912, President 
Taft signed a bill 
called the Pan- 
ama Canal Act, 
which fixed the 
form of perma- 
nent government in the Canal Zone. The President 
was authorized to appoint a governor for a term 
of four years, the appointment being subject to the 
approval of the Senate. The governor has exclusive 
control over the Canal Zone, and performs all duties 
connected with the civil administration. The first 




Photograph by Clinedinst 
GEORGE W. GOETHALS 



PANAMA CAXAL TOLLS CONTROVERSY 13 

governor was General Goethals, who was appointed 
in 1914. 

One feature of the Panama Canal Act caused 
much discussion, and for a time threatened a 
serious dispute with Great Britain. This was a 
clause allowing American-owned ships free passage 
through the canal, while foreign ships paid a toll 
of $1.25 per net ton of registry. The British 
government protested that this was a violation of 
the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, in which Section 1 of 
Article III reads as follows : 

" The canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce 
and of war of all nations observing these rules, on terms of entire 
equality so that there will be no discrimination against any 
such nation, or its citizens or subjects, in respect to the condi- 
tions or charges of traffic, or otherwise. Such conditions and 
charges of traffic shall be just and equitable." 

A large part of the American people believed 
that the act of Congress was not a violation of 
the treaty, because they interpreted the words "of 
all nations" as meaning all foreign nations, but 
not the United States. Shortly after his inaugu- 
ration, however, President Wilson let it be known 
that he favored the repeal of this clause, and on 
March 5, 1914, he appeared in person before Con- 
gress and requested this action. 

In answer to his appeal the House of Bepre- 
sentatives repealed the clause on March 30. In 
the Senate there was stubborn opposition to the 



14 ADMINISTRATION OF WOODROW WILSON 

President's policy, but its reasonableness was finally 
impressed on a majority, and on June 11 the clause 
was repealed by the Senate, with the amendment 
that the repeal was not a waiver of any rights. 
The amendment was accepted by the House, and 
the bill was signed by President "Wilson on June 
15. 

5. Two Expositions in California. — To celebrate 
the opening of the canal two expositions were held 
in California in 1915. Ground for the Panama- 
Pacific International Exposition was broken by 
President Taft on October 14, 1912, and every build- 
ing was completed when the exposition opened on 
February 20, 1915. It closed on December 4, 1915. 

Like all other great expositions, the one at San 
Francisco included representative exhibits from all 
parts of the world. Forty foreign nations sent 
products for display, as did forty-six of the states. 
The great distinction of this exposition, however, 
was in its architectural scheme and in the decora- 
tion and lighting. The grounds covered an area 
of 625 acres on the south front of San Francisco 
Bay, just inside the Golden Gate. The main build- 
ings were eleven in number, all in the Spanish 
Renaissance or Italian Renaissance style. The cen- 
tral architectural feature was the Tower of Jewels, 
which dominated the entire exposition. Throughout 
the grounds all illumination was by indirect light- 




Photograph Copyright by International News Service 

THE TOWER OF JEWELS 

The central feature of the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco. 
It was 433 feet high, and its base covered one acre. 



16 ADMINISTBATION OF WOODKOW WILSON 

ing, thousands of lamps being hidden away in cor- 
nices and other concealed spots. 

For the first time a uniform scheme of soft 
colors was adopted for a great exposition. Abso- 
lutely no dead white was used anywhere in the 
decorations or for any of the buildings. Even the 
cement sidewalks were given the same color as the 
buildings, a delicate tint of buff. The coloring mat- 
ter was mixed with the sand and cement and the 
mixture used on the buildings. 

In the decorations many brilliant colors were 
used. The buff colonnades were relieved against 
inner walls of Pompeiian red, and the capitals 
and friezes were in gold, blue, and a rich burnt 
orange. Some of the domes were of gold, others 
of copper-green; the roofs were mainly a rich red 
or sky blue. Yet all these colors were held together 
by the soft tones of the predominating buff. 

Panama-Pacific Exposition. — During the whole 
year 1915 this exposition, at San Diego, in south- 
ern California, was open. Though not as large 
as the one at San Francisco, it, too, was architec- 
turally noteworthy. All the buildings were in the 
Spanish colonial style, and their towers, minarets 
and red-tiled roofs rose in a splendid confusion 
above countless palms, shrubs and flowers. 

The entrance to the grounds was over a bridge 
900 feet long, spanning a deep ravine. The main 



BRYAN-WILSON PEACE TREATIES 



17 



avenue, El Prado, is shown in the illustration. 
Perhaps the most important exhibits were those 
relating to the history of the Southwest. 




LOOKING WESTWARD ALONG EL PRADO, SAN DIEGO 



6. The Bryan-Wilson Peace Treaties. — One of the 

most striking advances in the arbitration of dis- 
putes between nations was the negotiation by 
Secretary Bryan of a series of treaties between 
the United States and most of the civilized coun- 
tries of the world. In the words of President 
Wilson, "The parties agree that all questions, of 
whatever character and nature, in dispute between 
them, shall, when diplomatic efforts fail, be sub- 
mitted for investigation and report to an inter- 
national commission; and the contracting parties 



18 ADMINISTRATION OF WOODEOW WILSON 

agree not to declare war or begin hostilities until 
such investigation is made and report submitted. ' ' 

This principle was suggested for the considera- 
tion of thirty-nine countries, thirty-six of which 
promptly accepted it. In the course of 1913 and 
1914 treaties were negotiated and ratified with 
more than half of this number, including Argen- 
tine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, 
Great Britain, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, 
and Switzerland. The life of the treaties is limited 
to fiye years, and the parties are not bound by the 
findings of the commission. Each nation reserves 
the right to act as it sees fit after the report of the 
commission has been received. 

7. Relations with European Nations. — While the 
Bryan- Wilson treaties were being negotiated and 
approved, the assassin's bullet started a world- 
wide war which at times threatened disastrous 
consequences to the United States. Soon after 
the War of the Nations broke out it became appar- 
ent that both sides were going to disregard the 
rights of neutrals, particularly of neutral com- 
merce on the high seas. Great Britain's naval 
supremacy gave her command of the ocean, which 
she used to shut off all sea commerce from or to 
Germany. Germany, in return, tried to stop all 
British commerce. The problem became most acute 
for the United States after the sinking of the 



KELATIONS WITH EUKOPEAN NATIONS 



19 



Lusitania. This great vessel was sunk by a sub- 
marine torpedo on May 7, 1915, with a loss of 1,150 
men, women, and children, including 110 Amer- 
icans. The outraged public sentiment found ex- 
pression in the 
vigorous protests 
of President Wil- 
son to the Ger- 
man government. 
The first of the 
protests was 
signed by Secre- 
tary of State 
Bryan, but the 
second and the 
third were signed 
by Robert Lan- 
sing, his succes- 
sor. Bryan re- 
signed from the 
cabinet on June 8, 
1915, because he 
believed that the United States should not insist on 
a rigid maintenance of the rights of neutral com- 
merce and noncombatants, but should warn the 
citizens against the dangers of traveling in the 
war zone. The President, however, insisted on 
the letter of international law, that no mercantile 




Photograph by Clinedinst 
ROBERT LANSING 



20 ADMINISTBATION OF WOODKOW WILSON 

ship bearing passengers, whether enemy or neu- 
tral, should be sunk without warning and without 
an opportunity for the escape of the passengers 
and crew. After much negotiation the German 
government gave assurances that orders to that 
effect had been given to its submarine commanders. 
Germany, moreover, disavowed the torpedoing of 
the Arabic on August 19, 1915. The Arabic had been 
one of the largest of the vessels carrying muni- 
tions from the United States to England, and was 
returning to New York for another load when it 
was sunk off the Irish coast. 

Manufactuke of Munitions. — The war in Europe 
also had a sudden, spectacular influence on Amer- 
ican industry. Soon after the war broke out the 
nations allied against Germany began to buy sup- 
plies of all kinds in the United States. The great- 
est purchases were in guns and ammunition of 
various kinds. Rolling mills and steel works, loco- 
motive works, and dozens of plants of every 
description turned aside from their regular work 
and made nothing but war munitions. This fever- 
ish activity led to a great increase in exports, while 
the imports naturally declined, thus causing a large 
increase in the bills of exchange drawn on London. 
American manufacturers presented bills in such 
numbers that exchange fell from a normal of $4.85 
to $4.50 for £1; in other words, where the loss 



RELATIONS WITH EUROPEAN" NATIONS 21 

had formerly been nominal, an American manu- 
facturer now lost about 35 cents on every $5 he 
had to collect in Great Britain. 

Loan to the Allies. — This extraordinary situa- 
tion was slightly relieved in September, 1915, by the 
arrangement of a loan of $500,000,000 to Great 
Britain and France. These countries sent com- 
missioners to arrange terms with the leading bank- 
ers of the United States, and subscriptions to the 
loan were closed early in October. All proceeds 
of the loan are to be used in paying for supplies, 
including war munitions, bought in the United 
States. This is the first time in history that Great 
Britain has borrowed from a foreign nation. 

Recall of Dr. Dumba. — Just at the time the 
commissioners for the loan were completing 
arrangements, the Austrian ambassador, Dr. Con- 
stantin Dumba, was involved in difficulties with 
the United States. He was sending confidential 
reports to Vienna through an American news- 
paper correspondent, who was detained by the Brit- 
ish. Papers found on him showed that Dr. Dumba 
had been attempting to cause strikes in American 
factories and 'thus delay or even prevent the manu- 
facture of war supplies for the allies. This activ- 
ity was regarded by the United States government 
as a violation of its neutrality. At the President's 
request Dr. Dumba was recalled by his government. 



CHAPTEE II 

MEXICO SINCE 1867 

8. The Rule of Diaz.— After the fall of Maximil- 
ian's empire in 1867, Mexico again became a 
republic, with Benito Juarez as President. In 
spite of several uprisings, Juarez maintained con- 
trol of affairs until his death in 1872, but his 
successor, Lerdo de Tejada, was not so fortunate. 
About 1870 it began to appear that Lerdo de 
Tejada was planning to make himself dictator, 
and in the next year Porfirio Diaz began a revo- 
lution against him. Diaz, next to the President, 
was undoubtedly the foremost Mexican. He had 
been one of the leading military commanders in 
the struggle against the French and had been a 
candidate for the Presidency in 1867 and in 1871. 
The President was reelected in the summer of 
1876, but in November his forces were defeated 
by the revolutionists, and in January, 1877, he was 
forced into exile. 

On May 2, 1877, Porfirio Diaz was formally 
declared President, thus beginning a rule which 
continued, with the exception of the years 1880- 
1884, until 1911. Throughout the whole of this 

22 



EULE OF DIAZ 23 

period Diaz was not merely the head of the govern- 
ment, he ivas the government. Politically, the his- 
tory of Mexico is unimportant, for Diaz ruled with 
an iron hand. Judged by some standards, he was a 
remarkably capable ruler. He enforced law and 
order, developed the resources of his country, 
encouraged old and new industries, improved the 
educational methods, strengthened Mexican credit 
abroad, and reduced the national debt. 

But all of Mexico's progress was at the expense 
of its poorest citizens. Outwardly Mexico was 
prosperous, but economically its condition was 
unsound, for the wealth of the nation was centered 
in the hands of a few. Some of these few were 
foreigners who were exploiting Mexico for profit. 
The poor were shut out from the use of the land 
and its resources; the mines and the forests were 
put in the hands of foreign capitalists as "con- 
cessions," and the farms were mostly owned by a 
few great land-owning families. 

Mexico thus gradually became an oligarchy. The 
politicians and land owners who surrounded Diaz 
argued that the continued reelection of Diaz was 
necessary to the nation's business prosperity. 
These men were the cientificos, so called because 
they claimed to be governing on scientific prin- 
ciples. In fact their administration was corrupt, 
from the top to bottom. 



24 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

9. The Fall of Diaz. — In spite of occasional rum- 
blings, Diaz remained President until 1911. 
Shortly before the elections of 1910 there ap- 
peared a little book called The Succession to the 
Presidency, by Francisco Madero. Madero was 
himself a large land-owner in Coahuila, but since 
1900 had lived in Mexico City, and had become 
one of the leaders of the opposition to Diaz. The 
book was an attack on Diaz and the methods by 
which he maintained his supremacy. It was fol- 
lowed by the announcement that Madero was a 
candidate for the Presidency. "When election day 
arrived Madero was a prisoner by the orders of 
Diaz, and the opposition melted away. After the 
election Madero was released, on condition that he 
remain in Mexico. He fled, however, to Texas, 
and there organized a revolt which acquired con- 
siderable force before the end of 1910. Early in 
1911 Diaz, recognizing the inevitable, made numer- 
ous reforms. He was too late, for the Maderistas 
in the north were now confident of success; new 
revolts had broken out in the south, and the demand 
for the retirement of Diaz was beginning to be 
nation-wide. 

The revolutionists continued to meet with mili- 
tary success, and the insurrection spread almost 
to Mexico City itself. On May 18, 1911, peace was 
proclaimed between the two factions, the agree- 



THE MADEKO GOVEKNMENT 25 

ment calling for the immediate resignation of Diaz 
and a new election within six months. A week 
later Diaz resigned and secretly fled to Vera Cruz, 
where he embarked for Europe. He lived first in 
Barcelona, Spain, and later in Paris, where he died 
on July 2, 1915, alone, unmourned, almost un- 
noticed, a broken old man of eighty-four. 

10. The Madero Government. — The elections, 
held in October, resulted in the choice of Madero as 
President. Madero 's program was constitutional 
government and no reelection of officials, and for 
a time the country seemed about to settle down 
to a new era of peace. The followers of Zapata 
in the south, however, remained in arms, and 
several other uprisings against Madero were 
under way, although not fully organized. By the 
end of 1912 there were probably 25,000 men in arms 
against the Madero government. With proper 
organization they could have achieved their object 
quickly. Madero had made the mistake of acting 
too leniently, and had not crushed rebellion. At 
the same time he seemed unable to carry out the 
reforms, such as the division of great estates and 
the distribution of lands to the peons, to the extent 
which he had promised. Of Madero 's sincerity there 
can be no doubt, but he was unfortunate in using 
harshness and mildness at the wrong times. An 
idealist, devoted to justice and righteousness, he 



26 THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION 

was sadly lacking in the ability to use the "strong 
arm" tactics which seem necessary to the mainte- 
nance of the government in Mexico. 

The February Revolution. — In addition to his 
other troubles, Madero failed to win or buy the 
loyalty of the army. In October, 1912, an at- 
tempted revolution led by General Felix Diaz, 
nephew of the ex-dictator, failed in short order, 
and Diaz was condemned to death. Either from 
a false sense of his own security, or from moral 
scruples, or from a combination of these, Madero 
commuted the death sentence. 

Diaz now engineered a surprise for the mild- 
mannered President. On February 9, 1913, the 
cadets of the military academy at Chapultepec re- 
volted, liberated General Diaz from prison, and 
marched to the national palace to demand the 
resignation of Madero. The palace was strongly 
defended, and the insurgents finally took refuge 
in the arsenal, about a mile away. In the street 
fighting of the next week hundreds of non-com- 
batants, including women and children, were killed. 
Madero called in his commander-in-chief, Vic- 
toriano Huerta, who had been winning victories 
over the insurgents near the United States bound- 
ary. Huerta assumed command of the forces 
defending the palace, and held it until February 18. 
On the morning of that day Huerta was Madero 's 



DEATH OF MADERO 



27 



commander-in-chief ; in the evening he was Ma- 
dero 's captor and was himself provisional Presi- 
dent of Mexico. 

This lightning change was the result of nego- 
tiations between Felix Diaz and Huerta, in which 
the American ambassador, Henry L. Wilson, seems 




NATIONAL PALACE, MEXICO CITY 

For nearly 30 years, while Diaz was President, the seat of power; then for a few years a 
camping-ground for a succession of presidential candidates and their soldiers. 



to have had a share. The Federal army, under 
Huerta, went over to the rebels; Madero, his 
brother Gustavo, and Suarez, the Vice-President, 
were seized; and, on the evening of the 18th, 
Congress met in special session to elect Huerta 
provisional President. On February 23 Madero 
and Suarez were killed; according to Huerta, acci- 



28 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

dentally, as the result of an attempted rescue while 
the prisoners were being taken in an open auto- 
mobile from the palace to the penitentiary. The 
friends of Madero called it murder in cold blood, 
and evidence was later disclosed which seemed to 
indicate that the two men had been tortured and 
killed in the palace, and that the "attempted 
rescue" was a device to conceal the facts. 

11. Huerta, Dictator. — Huerta justified the over- 
throw of Madero by making charges of corruption 
against the late government, but neutral opinion 
seems to agree that Madero, a constitutionally 
elected President, should have been ousted by 
constitutional means. Felix Diaz meanwhile kept 
quiet, and left Huerta to bear the blame for the 
past and the responsibility for the provisional 
government. Friends of Diaz were appointed to 
the cabinet, but it soon became clear that Huerta 
was acquiring absolute power. The cabinet was 
soon reorganized; the presidential election, in 
which Diaz hoped for success, was postponed by 
Huerta 's proclamation from July to October; 
and there was now a complete breach between the 
two leaders. Huerta also met with opposition 
from two other quarters, at home and in Wash- 
ington. 

The Countek-Revolution. — At home Huerta 
had trouble from the beginning in the northern 



KELATIONS WITH UNITED STATES 29 

states. Here the demand for land reform was 
strongest and here the party of Madero was still 
in control. At the end of March this section for- 
mally repudiated the Huerta government, formed 
a party organization to which they gave the name 
Constitutionalist, and chose Venustiano Carranza, 
the governor of the state of Coahuila, as "first 
chief" of the Constitutionalist armies. During the 
summer there was little fighting, but by the end 
of the year the Constitutionalists had won numer- 
ous victories in the north, and held about half of 
all Mexico. In the south the bandit chief Zapata, 
who had fought Madero, refused to make terms 
with Huerta, and gradually brought his guerilla 
warfare within a hundred miles of the capital. 
Only in central Mexico, to which his armies were 
slowly driven, was Huerta recognized as President 
at the end of 1913. 

Policy of the United States. — Great Britain, 
France, and Spain promptly recognized the Huerta 
"provisional administration," but the United 
States held aloof. President Wilson, who suc- 
ceeded Taft on March 4, 1913, continued his prede- 
cessor's policy of non-recognition and non-inter- 
vention, and as months passed it became certain 
that no government in which Huerta was a factor 
would be recognized by the United States. Ambas- 
sador Wilson, on the other hand, was a strong 



30 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

supporter of Huerta, and publicly announced Ms 
belief that the President should recognize the 
provisional government. As the two Wilsons, 
President and ambassador, could not work in 
harmony, the President finally accepted the am- 
bassador's resignation in August. He now sent 
a "personal representative," John Lind, to Mexico 
City to negotiate for the withdrawal of Huerta 
from Mexican affairs. President Wilson proposed 
that there be a new election, at which Huerta 
should not be a candidate; all parties were to 
abide by the result of the election, and the United 
States would recognize and assist the new govern- 
ment. 

The Octobek Coup d'Etat. — Huerta, far from 
showing any inclination to retire, asserted the 
legality of his position and, in substance if not 
in words, declined to argue the question. In Octo- 
ber, Huerta further revealed his intentions by 
dissolving Congress and arresting nearly half of 
its members, because that body had voted to in- 
vestigate the sudden disappearance of one of its 
members who had bitterly attacked the Huerta 
administration. Huerta next issued a call for a 
congressional election, to be held at the same time 
as the presidential election. 

Meanwhile Huerta assumed the powers of a 
dictator, but he was officially informed that Presi- 



HUEKTA IN DIFFICULTIES 31 

dent Wilson was "shocked at the lawless methods 
employed" and would not recognize the new elec- 
tion as valid. In spite cf this warning, the election 
was held and Huerta, though he claimed to be not 
a candidate, was chosen President by a large 
majority. The newly elected Congress met in 
November, declared its own election valid, but 
called the election of Huerta void. It then ex- 
tended Huerta 's term as provisional President to 
July 5, 1914. 

12. Huerta in Difficulties. — This farcical proce- 
dure deceived no one, and the continued refusal 
of recognition by the United States was doing 
much harm. Huerta was unable to borrow money 
to pay the army and buy ammunition, and it was 
the army which was holding him in office. The 
Constitutionalists were winning victories in the 
north, and President Wilson, on December 2, told 
Congress that "the collapse is not far away. We 
shall not, I believe, be obliged to alter our policy 
of watchful waiting, and then, when the end comes, 
we shall hope to see constitutional order restored 
in distressed Mexico." Huerta now tried to stave 
off the coming collapse by pushing through new 
reforms, but the laws which were passed at his 
request were nothing but a brave pretense. The 
Constitutionalist armies were steadily drawing 
near, and the Huerta government was tottering. 



32 Mexico since 1867 

13. Tampico and Vera Cruz.— Early in April, 
1914, a force of 7,000 Constitutionalists was at- 
tempting to take Tampico, a port on the Gulf of 
Mexico. On April 9, while the fighting was still 
in progress, a number of American sailors landed 
at the town, within the federal lines, and were 
immediately arrested. An hour and a half later, 
after it had been established that their errand 
was peaceful, merely to buy gasoline, they were 
released. Apologies were offered promptly by the 
federal commander in Tampico, and by Huerta, 
who also promised that the officer responsible for 
the arrest should be properly disciplined. These 
apologies were regarded as insufficient by the 
American commander, E ear- Admiral Henry T. 
Mayo, who demanded a salute of guns to the 
American flag. This the Mexicans refused, on 
the ground that the entire incident was too trivial 
for further discussion and that no insult to the 
American flag had been intended. Huerta finally 
consented to the salute, if the United States govern- 
ment would agree to return it. President Wilson 
declined to consider this proposition, but Huerta 
paid no attention to the ultimatum that the salute 
be fired by 6 p.m. on April 19. President Wilson 
thereupon asked Congress to authorize the use of 
armed force. 

While Congress was debating whether or not to 



33 

grant the President's request, it became known 
that a large supply of guns and ammunition was 
on the way from Europe to Vera Cruz on the 
German steamer Ypiranga. To prevent the arms 
from reaching Huerta, the President ordered the 
seizure of the customs house at Vera Cruz. At 
half past eleven on the morning of April 21 a 
detachment of United States marines was sent 
ashore. The Mexicans at once opened fire on the 
landing-party, which was supported by the guns 
of the fleet. There was considerable "sniping" 
during the day, but no organized resistance, and 
on the next day the Mexican army withdrew, leav- 
ing the city in the hands of the Americans. A 
week later the city was turned over to 6,000 
regular soldiers under the command of General 
Funston. 

14. "A B C" Mediation.— Four days after the 
occupation of Vera Cruz — that is, on April 25 — 
the diplomatic representatives in Washington from 
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered to a,ct as 
mediators in the dispute between Huerta and the 
United States. President Wilson and Huerta 
immediately accepted the offer, and the latter 
agreed to a cessation of hostilities. Carranza, 
however, declined to consider mediation, prefer- 
ring to submit the decision to arms. On May 20 
representatives of Huerta and the United States 



34 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

met the three mediators at Niagara Falls, Ontario. 
After much argument it became clear that no 
settlement was possible without first arranging 
peace between the factions in Mexico. On June 12 
Carranza unexpectedly named three delegates to 
present his case, and the conference ended on 
July 1. The conference decided that: 

(1) A provisional government should be estab- 
lished by an agreement between the delegates from 
Huerta and Carranza. 

(2) The United States should immediately rec- 
ognize the provisional government thus estab- 
lished, and should exact no indemnity or other 
satisfaction for the affair at Tampico. 

(3) The "A B C" powers should also recognize 
the provisional government. 

15. Carranza in Command. — While the media- 
tors were in session at Niagara Falls, the armies 
of Carranza were steadily advancing, and by the 
first of July it was apparent that mediation would 
soon be needless. Finally, on July 15, General 
Huerta, realizing the uselessness of further resist- 
ance, resigned and immediately began the journey 
to Spain. For a month the President of Mexico 
was Francisco Carbajal, an eminent jurist, who 
negotiated with Carranza for a peaceful change 
of government. On August 15, General Obregon 
entered the capital with 15,000 Constitutionalist 



REVOLT OF VILLA 35 

troops, and, on August 20, Carranza, the " first 
chief," made his triumphal entry. Thus the 
"watchful waiting" policy of President Wilson 
had achieved its first aim, the elimination of 
Huerta, but in the course of the next few weeks 
the prospects of peace became more remote 
than ever. 

The entry of Carranza into the capital, while 
itself peaceful, was followed by rioting and insur- 
rection. To suppress these Carranza began a 
career of arbitrary arrest and confiscation of 
property which made Huerta 's despotism seem 
childish. In one month over 1,000 persons were 
imprisoned for political reasons. The bandit chief, 
Zapata, who had made peace with Carranza, now 
turned against him because the latter did not 
carry out land reform according to Zapata's plans. 
A revolution against Carranza had already broken 
out in July, and in various sections the Constitu- 
tionalist generals had squabbles of one kind or 
another. 

16. Revolt of Villa, — The most serious blow yet 
to come was the revolt of Francisco Villa. Villa was 
nominally Carranza 's chief of staff, and when Car- 
ranza made the capital his headquarters, Villa 
remained in the north in supreme command. In 
the days of Diaz, Villa had been nothing but a 
bandit, a highwayman on occasion, and he was 



36 Mexico sixce 1867 

said to have committed murder now and then 
without allowing the deed to weigh on his con- 
science. This man had allied himself with the 
Constitutionalists, and in a brief time showed him- 
self the most brilliant of the generals. He had a 
large personal following, and as victory followed 
victory he was easily the hero of the army. Where 
other men failed, he, with a smaller force, succeeded. 

This picturesque figure is a strange contrast to 
Carranza, who is an educated man, a great land 
owner, an aristocrat. There had been friction be- 
tween the two men for months, and matters were 
not improved by the triumphal entry of Carranza 
and Obregon into Mexico City. Villa had won all 
the important battles, but he was left out of the new 
arrangements. Villa, moreover, had some cause to 
suspect Carranza 's motives, and perhaps believed 
that Carranza was planning to make himself Presi- 
dent for the next regular term. At any rate, on Sep- 
tember 23 Villa declared war against Carranza, 
and stated that there could be no peace until Car- 
ranza retired from public life. 

A peace conference was arranged between the two 
factions. It met at Aguascalientes on October 10, 
and from the first the Carranzistas were the minor- 
ity, each delegate representing 1,000 Constitutional- 
ist soldiers. The conference assumed supreme 
authority, and after many bitter exchanges of 



REVOLT OF VILLA 37 

charges and counter-charges, decreed the retirement 
of both Carranza and Villa. On November 2 it 
elected as President, General Eulalio Gutierrez, a 
former grocer who had become a prominent soldier. 
Carranza refused to accept the decree, but Villa 
offered to resign his command if necessary to elimi- 
nate Carranza. The latter, however, continued de- 
fiant, and, on November 11, Villa, on behalf of 
Gutierrez, opened hostilities a few miles south of 
Aguascalientes. 

The lines between the Carranzistas and the 
Villistas were quickly and sharply drawn. Within 
a fortnight Carranza was forced to evacuate 
Mexico City, leaving the city open to Zapata and 
his brigands. Villa joined Zapata on December 1, 
and two days later the Gutierrez government was 
formally installed in the palace. Meanwhile the 
Americans, on November 23, evacuated Vera Cruz, 
which now became Carranza 's capital by procla- 
mation. 

The situation thus became still more complex. 
Villa controlled the north, Carranza the south. 
Each claimed to be working for the best interests 
of Mexico, yet each distrusted the other. Villa, 
outwardly at least, seemed to have a better claim 
to the support of the law-abiding citizens. He 
had yielded to the wishes of the Constitutionalist 
Congress, although he later controlled it abso- 



38 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

lutely. The Gutierrez administration was domi- 
nated by Villa, and when Gutierrez no longer 
pleased Villa and the other " Conventionists " he 
was deposed and General Roque Garza put in his 
place. Garza held office from January 17 to June 9, 
1915, when he was deposed by the Constitutionalist 
Convention at Mexico City and Francisco Chazaro 
elected in his place. 

The Presidency of Mexico had by now become 
an empty honor. Villa had assumed the executive 
power in the north, with his capital first at Agua- 
scalientes and later at Chihuahua. Carranza re- 
mained at Vera Cruz, and Mexico City lay open 
to any chieftain or bandit who cared to camp there. 
The capture or recapture of the city ceased to have 
any military or political importance. 

17. The Conference of Diplomats. — In August 
President Wilson's policy of non-interference was 
considerably modified. At Secretary Lansing's 
invitation the Washington representatives of six 
Latin- American republics met to consider a solu- 
tion of the Mexican problem. The conference 
members were the ambassadors from Argentina, 
Brazil, and Chile, and the ministers from Bolivia, 
Uruguay and Guatemala. The first session was 
held on August 5, and on the 14th the conference 
addressed an appeal to the Mexican people and 
its leaders. This was a request that the military 




THE MAKERS OF RECENT HISTORY IN MEXICO 

The man who made Mexico, the men who nearly brought it to ruin, 
and the men who mav redeem it. 



40 MEXICO SINCE 1867 

and political chiefs of Mexico agree to a truce, 
first establish a provisional government, and then 
call a general election. This appeal was sent not 
only to Carranza, Villa, and Zapata, but to the 
governors of the Mexican states and to anybody 
else of any influence. Villa at once announced his 
willingness to trust his cause to the friendly offices 
of the six diplomats, but Carranza rejected the 
proposals. 

18. Recognition of Carranza, — As September 
passed into October it became clear, however, that 
Carranza 's armies were rapidly gaining the upper 
hand. Villa was defeated several times and his 
forces were driven northward almost to the United 
States border. Here the Mexicans began raids into 
Texas. Neither Carranza nor Villa was able to stop 
these raids, and it was only when United States 
regulars under General Funston supported the 
Texas rangers that American lives and property 
became safe even on the American side of the border. 
On October 9 Secretary of State Lansing held 
another conference with the six Latin- American 
diplomats, who decided that "the Carranza party 
is the only party possessing the essentials for 
recognition as the de facto government of 
Mexico." This announcement was followed by 
the recognition of Carranza on October 19, 1915. 



CHAPTER III 

THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

19. A Tragedy of World-Wide Eff ect^-On June 28, 
1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, nephew of 
Emperor Francis Joseph and heir to the Austro-Hun- 
garian throne, was paying his first official visit to the 
picturesque little city of Sarayevo, the capital of Bos- 
nia. With his wife he was driving in state from the 
town hall, where he had been received by the mayor 
and distinguished citizens. As the automobile slowed 
down to turn a corner, a Servian student named 
Princip drew a revolver and rapidly fired several 
times. One of the bullets struck the Duchess in the 
side, and another struck the Archduke in the neck. 
Both wounds were fatal and the victims died before 
medical assistance could be summoned. 

20. The Declaration of War.— On July 23, nearly 
a month after the murder, Austria issued an ulti- 
matum in which apology and reparation were de- 
manded from Servia. The Servian reply was called 
unsatisfactory by the Austrian government, and now 
for the first time war loomed as a possibility. For a 
week the telegraph wires were hot with messages 

41 



42 THE WAK OF THE NATIOXS 

between chancellors, foreign ministers, ambassadors, 
kings and emperors, all ostensibly trying to prevent 
a general European war. On Tuesday, July 28, how- 
ever, Austria declared war against Servia, and a 
week later Austria and Germany were at war with 
Servia, Eussia, France, Belgium and Great Britain. 

Not unjustly, the war has been called a war with- 
out cause or object. Yet each nation felt justified in 
taking the position it did, and each claimed the 
right of self-defense. The war may have no cause, 
but it has a background of explanation, which in- 
cludes all European history since 1789. 

21. Influence of the French Revolution. — The 
causes of this war go back beyond the creation of the 
German Empire, beyond the fall of Napoleon, to the 
French E evolution. The twentieth century sees no 
strangeness in the idea that people who speak the 
same language and share the same spiritual and 
political history should be politically united and inde- 
pendent. The eighteenth century, however, saw no 
reason for such a condition. Germans fought in the 
armies of George III, Englishmen and Scotchmen 
served under Frederick the Great, and Swiss and 
Italians obeyed Louis XV. The French Ee volution 
taught the world that "men of the same nation 
should be brothers-in-arms to defend their liberties 
against the tyrant and their homes against the for- 
eign foe." 



THE SPEEAD OF NATIONALISM 43 

22. The Spread of Nationalism. — In the course of 
years Germany, Greece, Eumania, Servia, Bulgaria, 
Italy and Norway all asserted their national exist- 
ence. Yet the political and racial boundaries, par- 
ticularly in the Balkan nations, rarely coincide. 
Though the Balkan states, one after another, won 
independence, they were unable to free from Turkish 
rule many sections occupied by their fellow-coun- 
trymen. They quarreled even among themselves 
over their boundaries, and for years border raids 
were a regular occurrence. The hatred of the Bal- 
kan nations for the Turks seems no greater than 
their hatred of each other. But in the face of the 
continued mistreatment of Christians in Macedonia 
and Albania, the Balkan peoples nevertheless laid 
aside their jealousies and prepared to meet a com- 
mon enemy. 

23. The Turko-Balkan War. — Rebellions and mas- 
sacres of their fellow-countrymen inflamed the Bal- 
kan nations to action in the autumn of 1912. On 
October 8 Montenegro, the smallest of the states, 
declared war against Turkey; Servia and Bulgaria 
followed on October 17, Greece on October 18. 

Within one month the Turks were driven back 
almost to Constantinople. The Bulgarians won the 
great battles of Kirk-Kilisse and Lule Burgas, the 
Montenegrins laid siege to Adrianople, the Servians 
took Uskub, Monastir and Durazzo, and the Greeks 



44 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

advanced on Saloniki. The campaign was carefully 
planned and the Balkan allies cooperated with great 
success. 

The European powers, meanwhile, were discussing 
means of securing peace,. and at the end of November 
Sir Edward Grey, the British secretary of foreign 
affairs, proposed that the various nations involved 
send representatives to confer at London. On Decem- 
ber 3 an armistice was arranged among all the war- 
ring nations except Greece, whose soldiers were still 
trying to take Saloniki. The peace conference in 
London began on the 16th, but on January 6, 1913, 
the Balkan delegates withdrew in disgust at the 
apparent impossibility of coming to any agreement. 

Hostilities were resumed early in February, and 
Janina, Adrianople and Scutari were soon taken by 
the allies after desperate righting. In April a second 
peace conference was held in London at the request 
of the great powers, and on May 3, 1913, the treaty 
of peace was signed. Turkey was compelled to cede 
nearly all of her territory in Europe. 

24. Second Balkan War.— In 1912 Servia and Bul- 
garia had secretly agreed to divide all territory con- 
quered from Turkey in such a way that Servia 
should have a port on the Adriatic Sea and Bulgaria 
one on the Aegean Sea. When terms of peace were 
arranged at London, however, Austria and Italy 
protested against giving Servia access to the Adri- 



THE BALKAN WARS 45 

atic and persuaded the powers to create an inde- 
pendent state of Albania. This new state was a part 
of the territory which Bulgaria had agreed should 
become Servian, but Bulgaria argued that the action 
of the powers should not affect the line of division 
which had been secretly agreed upon in 1912. Servia 
was thus deprived of a large part of the territory 
rightly due it. Bulgaria was also quarreling with 
Greece, with whom it had made no treaty for divi- 
sion of the spoils. Bumania, which had hitherto 
been neutral, now demanded that Bulgaria cede a 
strip of territory on the Black Sea, south of the 
mouths of the Danube. Bulgaria declined to yield 
to its neighbors on any of these points, and was 
compelled to wage war against all of them. 

The odds were hopelessly against the Bulgarians. 
When the Bum.anian, Greek and Servian armies 
were all within twenty miles of Sofia, the cap- 
ital, Czar Ferdinand sought peace. By the Treaty 
of Bucharest, signed on August 10, 1913, Bulgaria 
lost half of the territory it had won from Turkey and 
also the strip claimed by Bumania. While the Balkan 
states were thus fighting each other, the Turks ap- 
peared on the scene and snatched one of the prizes, 
Adrianople, which had been allotted to Bulgaria by 
the Treaty of London. 

25. Four Decades of Diplomacy. — The formation 
of the German Empire caused a readjustment in 



46 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

European politics and diplomacy which finally led to 
the "War of the Nations. Bismarck gratified German 
nationalism by creating a nation and by restoring 
the ancient German provinces of Alsace-Lorraine. 
France, however, was outraged, because it regarded 
the provinces as French. The possibility of a French 
war of revenge probably influenced Bismarck to cul- 
tivate the friendship of other European nations. 
First Germany was allied with Austria and Eussia, 
but when these nations became jealous of each other's 
influence in the Balkan Peninsula, Italy took the 
place of Russia in the Triple Alliance (1882). 

In 1895, five years after Bismarck's retirement, 
Russia and France formed a Dual Alliance, on the 
avowed basis of opposition to German expansion. 
An even greater blow to German supremacy was the 
addition of Great Britain to the Dual Alliance, to 
form the Triple Entente. Thanks partly to King 
Edward VII, but even more largely to Theophile 
Delcasse, probably the greatest French diplomat of 
his time, the Triple Entente was formed in 1904 and 
formally proclaimed in 1907. Thus Great Britain 
joined hands with France, her most ancient enemy, 
and with Russia, to stop whose advances in Asia had 
been the aim of British diplomacy for a century. 

The delicate balance of power thus established 
between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente 
was astonishingly sensitive to the slightest interna- 




THE HEADS OF THE WARRING NATIONS 

The futures of their nations are being determined by the millions of their 
patriotic citizens on the fields of battle. 



48 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

tional disturbances. Five times in a decade Europe 
seemed on the verge of a great war. The first was in 
1905, when Germany demanded and received recog- 
nition from France for her interests in Morocco. The 
second episode was in 1908, when Austria-Hungary 
annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. A third crisis came 
in 1911, when the German gunboat Panther suddenly 
appeared at Agadir, Morocco. It was announced that 
Germany's intention was merely to protect its inter- 
ests and the interests of its citizens who were affected 
by the revolution and disorders in the interior. The 
French regarded the act as a possible forerunner of 
a permanent occupation, and for a few days diplo- 
matic relations were keyed to the breaking-point. 
Again in 1912 Austria-Hungary and Italy pre- 
vented Servia from securing a part of the Adriatic 
coast, only because Russia was unwilling to go to 
war. The fifth crisis was in 1913, when Austria 
threatened to send troops to Scutari, if the Monte- 
negrins would not give it up. The Montenegrins, 
after a long siege, had taken this city from the 
Turks; but the powers of Europe decided that it 
should be given to Albania. In every one of these 
fiye crises either Germany or Austria secured its 
object over the protests of Great Britain, France 
and Russia, comprising the Triple Entente. A 
sixth time, however, was one too many. After the 
assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, 



OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES 49 

Austria's plans for punishing Servia met the steady 
opposition of Eussia. Previously Eussia had yielded 
under pressure; now its armies were prepared. 

26. The Outbreak of Hostilities.— Probably the 
German diplomats misjudged Eussia' s intentions 
and thought that the Czar would not go to war, but 
they were mistaken. The German government re- 
garded mobilization of the Eussian army as a menace 
not only to Austria-Hungary but to the German 
Empire. On July 30 Germany therefore asked the 
Eussian government to halt mobilization, a request 
which Eussia refused. Germany declared war against 
Eussia on August 1, Austria having already issued 
a declaration against Servia on July 28. Also on 
August 1 France ordered mobilization, and Italy, 
though a member of the Triple Alliance, announced 
its neutrality. The French government made a non- 
committal reply to Germany's request for informa- 
tion regarding France's position in the event of war 
with Eussia, and on August 2 German troops crossed 
the border. The formal declarations of war were 
issued on the 3rd. On August 2 German troops 
crossed the line into Belgium, and demanded free 
passage. The Belgian government refused this re- 
quest, and called on Great Britain for aid in main- 
taining its neutrality. As the German government 
declined to guarantee Belgian neutrality, Great 
Britain declared war on August 4. 



50 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

27. Election of a New Pope. — The outbreak of war 
naturally caused Pope Pius X great anxiety, and it is 
probable that the war hastened his death. On 
the 19th his last message, a prayer for peace, was 
addressed to the Catholics of the world. His death 
occurred on the next day. The political situation 
demanded the immediate election of his successor. 
The College of Cardinals was summoned to a con- 
clave, and on September 3, 1914, elected Cardinal 
Giacomo Delia Chiesa as the 250th successor of Saint 
Peter. 

The new Pope, unlike Pope Pius X, is a man of 
aristocratic birth and training. His father was a 
wealthy nobleman, who could afford to give his son 
the best of preparation for life. At an early age the 
boy determined to enter the priesthood, and in 1878, 
being then 24 years old, he was ordained. Even as a 
young priest he attracted notice, and with the friend- 
ship and encouragement of Cardinal Eampolla, rose 
to the position of under-secretary of state under Pope 
Leo XIII. Under Pope Pius he received new honors, 
and in 1907 was appointed Archbishop of Bologna, 
On May 25, 1914, at the last consistory held by Pope 
Pius, he was elevated to the rank of cardinal. He 
had already become known as a diplomat, a cool, 
even-tempered leader. Under the extraordinary con- 
ditions which now confronted the Church, Cardinal 
Chiesa 's qualifications won recognition, and on the 




-*H 



52 



THE WAK OF THE NATIONS 



ninth ballot he was elected Pope. He took the name 
of Benedict XV, and was crowned on September 8. 
28. The Strategy of the War.— With powerful 
enemies both on the east and the west, the German- 
Austrian plan of campaign was to crush France 
first, while a comparatively small number of men 
held off the slow-moving Russians. To Austria- 
Hungary was assigned the duty of punishing 
Servia and also of defending its own eastern 
frontier, while Germany undertook to crush France. 

Then, with 
France 



dis- 
posed of by 
separate 
treaty, the en- 
tire forces of 
the Teutonic 
powers could 
be turned on 
Russia. From 
a military 
point of view 
this was sound 
strategy, for the first element favoring the Germans 
was the completeness of their equipment and the 
rapidity with which their armies could be mobilized. 
Russia, on the other hand, is a land of great dis- 
tances and poor transportation facilities, where 




AN ELABORATE TRENCH 

The sides are re-enforced by heavy posts, and all around are 
barbed-wire entanglements 



THE ADVANCE AGAINST PAKIS 53 

mobilization is a slow process. Russian mobiliza- 
tion, unfortunately for the Teutonic allies, proceeded 
with phenomenal rapidity, and when the German 
drive against Paris had almost reached its goal, the 
Russian advance necessitated the weakening of the 
western armies to defend East Prussia from in- 
vasion. 

29. The Advance Against Paris. — The first Ger- 
man troops crossed the Belgian border near Aix-la- 
Chapelle on August 2, 1914, advanced to Liege, and 
demanded unrestricted passage through Belgium. 
This was refused, and the bombardment of Liege 
began on the 5th. The city fell three days later. 
Namur, supposed to be one of. the strongest for- 
tresses in Europe, surrendered on the 27th, after a 
bombardment of five days. In the next ten days the 
German armies executed one of the most remarkable 
military movements in all history. A force of prob- 
ably 1,000,000 men, moving in four columns, spread 
out from Liege and Brussels as bases. The Belgian 
army, which had so bravely fought the invader, was 
pushed aside toward Antwerp, and 100,000 Germans 
were left to keep it in check. 

To oppose the mass of Germans moving south- 
ward was a French force of perhaps 250,000 men, 
and about 50,000 British. Two-thirds of the total 
French forces were conducting a counter-offensive 
in the neighborhood of Nancy, Verdun and Bel- 



54 



THE WAE OF THE NATIONS 



fort, in an attempt to reconquer Alsace and Lor- 
raine. When the Germans tnrned southward from 
Brussels they were actually 50 to 100 miles nearer 
Paris than the main French armies in the south. 

If the small force op- 
posing the Germans 
could be crushed, or 
its left flank turned, 
the main French 
armies could be 
pinned down between 
the Swiss border and 
the rapidly advanc- 
ing German right. 
Only by the narrow- 
est of margins did 
this plan fail, for the 
French and the Brit- 
ish, who formed the 
extreme left, fought 
desperately to stave off the flanking movement and 
retreated straight south toward Paris. 

30. The Battle of the Marne.— Along the Biver 
Marne the allied left took a firm stand, with Paris 
as a base. The flanking movement thus came to a 
halt. There remained, however, the possibility of 
breaking the allied center before it should be suffi- 
ciently prepared against attack. The first move 




A SHELTERED OUTPOST 

The observer is stationed near the enemy's lines, 
and reports to his commander the result of artillery 
fire. The artillery is several miles to the rear. 



ON THE MAKNE AND THE AISNE 55 

was made by Von Kluck, who commanded the Ger- 
man right. On September 1 he lay north of Paris. 
Instead of attempting to batter his way south, 
he turned to the east, intending to hurl his 
forces against the allied center. In so doing he 
exposed his flank to the attack of almost 100,000 
men of the Paris garrison, who advanced on his 
right and rear on September 7. At the same time 
the British and French attacked his front, and only 
by brilliant generalship did the German right 
escape from this trap. Until the 10th the Ger- 
mans held their line on the Marne. The German 
center, under Von Billow, fought desperately to 
break the French center, but Von Kluck 's retreat 
exposed the German center to a flank attack. 
Slowly the whole German line was compelled to 
retire, keeping pace with Von Kluck. 

The Battle of the Marne was one of the great- 
est battles in history. In the number of men 
involved, variously estimated at 2,000,000 to 2,750,- 
000, in the extent of the line, and in the loss 
of lives, it surpassed any previous battle ever fought. 
It marked the high tide of German invasion in 
France, and at the same time demonstrated the wis- 
dom of General Joffre, commander-in-chief of the 
French army. Joffre sacrificed a large section of 
northern France to the Germans, but he preserved 
his own forces intact, and prevented a repetition of 



56 



THE WAK OF THE NATIONS 



Sedan, where the French were surrounded by supe- 
rior forces and compelled to surrender. 

31. Along the Aisne. — In spite of their larger num- 
bers the allied armies were unable to turn defeat 

into rout. The 
Germans had 
prepared 
strong forti- 
fied positions 
along the Kiv- 
er Aisne, and 
here they 
made a stand 
on September 
11. Direct at- 
tacks at Sois- 
sons and other 
points along 
the line were 
costly and 
proved the impossibility of driving out the Germans 
by direct attack. For six terrible days the allied 
troops attacked savagely. But these six days, 
though they cost thousands of lives, showed that 
the Germans could not be driven pell-mell out of 
France. For two weeks more, fighting continued 
along the entire front, but rather in an attempt 
to find a weak spot in the German lines, than 




A SHORT REST IN THE TRENCHES 

German soldiers during a lull in hostilities. The latest news- 
papers from home and the beloved pipes while away the time 
until the French renew the attack. At the right is a bomb- 
proof dugout, offering protection against aeroplanes. 



BATTLE OF FLANDEKS 57 

in an impetuous rush to break through at all 
costs. 

32. The Fall of Antwerp. — It soon became clear 
that frontal attacks could not succeed. Just as Von 
Kluck had previously tried to outflank the Allies 
and roll their left on the center, so now the Allies 
tried to roll Von Kluck 's lines back on Von Billow. 
Three times they made the attempt, and three 
times the Germans extended their lines northward 
to meet the danger. At the end of September the 
German bombardment of Antwerp began, and the 
flanking movement of the allies also became an 
attempt to save the Belgian army and this for- 
tress. The allies were unsuccessful; Antwerp fell on 
October 9, 1914. Most of the Belgian army, led by 
King Albert, escaped westward along the coast. 

33. The Battle of Flanders.— In October the 
Germans attempted to advance along the coast to 
Calais, apparently with the intention of making 
it a base for attacks on England. For five weeks 
the battle raged along the canals and the River 
Yser. The dikes were opened and large sections 
of the lowlands were flooded to prevent the Ger- 
mans from advancing. British warships were sta- 
tioned inshore and their terrific fire drove the 
enemy miles from the coast. No other battle of 
the war was so bloody. In and near Nieuport, 
Dixmude and Ypres the fighting was incessant, 



58 



THE WAR OF THE XATIOXS 



but in spite of the enormous masses hurled to the 
attack, the allied line held firmly. 

34. Deadlock in the West.— For nearly a year 
there was a deadlock in the west. There were 
occasional attempts by both sides to break through 




AN ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUN 

A French gun, specially designed for defense against German aeroplanes and Zeppelins. The 

gun is mounted so that it can be turned in any direction and elevated to any angle. 



the lines of the enemy, but none of these resulted 
in more than a local success, and many in costly 
defeats. In the neighborhood of Soissons and 
Ypres the Germans made considerable gains, and 
at the northern end the allies made several gains 
which straightened the line. One of the most 
brilliant actions was that of Nueve Chapelle, where 



A NEW ALLIED DKIVE 59 

the British attacked in great force, and for a brief 
time threatened the German positions. The entire 
battle line, over 400 miles long, settled down 
to a condition of siege unprecedented in history. 
The armies entrenched, and many of the defenses 
became almost permanent fortifications. Advances 
were measured in feet, and gains of several hundred 
yards were announced as great victories. 

35. A New Allied Drive. — Late in the summer 
of 1915 the allies began a terrific bombardment of 
the German lines from the Channel to Switzer- 
land. On September 25 the advance began. The 
infantry attacks were concentrated on Ypres, Lens 
and a point between Rheims and Verdun in the 
Champagne region. For three days before the 
attack the bombardment increased in intensity, 
literally blowing the German trenches to pieces. 
When the infantry attack was made, 20 minutes 
sufficed for the capture of the ruined trenches. 

"While this September drive seems only a local 
success, it was important because at three sep- 
arate points in the long battle front the allies made 
short gains which threatened the German lines 
of communication. Furthermore, it seemed to 
demonstrate that the German lines could be broken 
by an almost inexhaustible supply of men and 
ammunition. The French victory in Champagne 
was generally regarded by military critics as the 



60 



THE WAE OF THE XATIOXS 



most successful piece of aggressive tactics on the 
western front since the German attack at Ypres in 
April, when the Canadian contingent bore the 
brunt of the attack and saved the allied line. 



<- 




% 


- - y - • 


. 


%% r 



DEFENSE AGAINST GAS 

French soldiers, wearing oxygen respirators. The gas cloud has passed over the trench, and the 
soldiers are awaiting the German infantry attack. One of the men is ready to throw a bomb. 



CAMPAIGNS IN EAST PKUSSIA 61 

36. Strategy in the East.— The eastern battlefield 
was the entire line from the Baltic Sea to the Ru- 
manian border. The center of this line is Russian 
Poland, which juts out from Russia proper like a 
great peninsula. This Polish projection lies between 
East Prussia on the north and Galicia, or Austrian 
Poland, on the south. The object of the Russians, 
therefore, was first to drive back the Germans from 
East Prussia and the Austrians from Galicia. The 
possession of these provinces was essential to the 
protection of the Russian flanks. 

The Teutonic allies, on the other hand, aimed to 
hold the two outlying provinces and use them as 
jaws between which the nut of Russian Poland 
could be cracked. The topography of the country 
favored the Germans, for western Poland is flat, 
with no obstacles to prevent the advance of armies. 

37. Campaigns in East Prussia. — For the first 
two weeks of the war, during the German advance 
through Belgium, the Russians gave no trouble. 
The German drive through France was just begin- 
ning when word came that the Russians were 
advancing in force, and the western advance was 
weakened because troops had to be transported 
across Germany to meet this danger. 

The westernmost point of the Polish wedge is 
only 200 miles from Berlin, but the Russians 
wisely made no attempts to advance here. The 



62 



THE WAR OF THE XATIOXS 



first serious blow was struck at East Prussia. The 
main Eussian army, moving directly west from 
Kovno, avoided the treacherous Mazurian Lakes, 
defeated the Germans in a seven-day battle at 
Gumbinnen, August 17-23, and drove the Germans 




THE KAISER AWARDING THE IRON CROSS TO SEVEN HEROES 



back on Konigsberg. Another Eussian army, ad- 
vancing south of the Mazurian Lakes, drove two 
German army corps toward the Vistula. While 
the Germans in front of them continued to retreat, 
the Eussians were suddenly exposed to a flank 
attack from a new German army hastily trans- 
ported from Belgium. In command of this army 



ON THE VISTULA 



63 



was Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, who was 
soon to prove himself one of the great generals of 
the war. On the last three days of August, Von 
Hindenburg fought and routed the Eussians in the 
battle of Allenstein, or Tannenberg. The Eussians 
lost 70,000 men in prisoners and the equipment of 
two army corps. 

38. The Invasion of Galicia. — In Galicia the 
Eussians were carrying on an offensive campaign 
at the same time that they were advancing into 
East Prussia. The central Austrian army, mean- 
while, had invaded Poland, and had won the im- 
portant battle of Krasnik on August 23 and the 
three following days. On September 2 the Eussians 
took the Galician fortress of Lemberg, which they 
immediately used as a base for an attack on the main 
Austrian army in Poland. On a battle-front nearly 
200 miles long, 1,500,000 Eussians attacked and 
practically routed 1,000,000 Austrians. The Aus- 
trians retreated to the San Eiver, where they tried 
to make a stand; but Jaroslav was lost and Przemysl 
was invested, thus compelling the Austrians to 
retreat 80 miles farther to the Dunajec Eiver. 

39. On the Vistula. — By the middle of October 
the Eussians had practically completed the con- 
quest of Galicia. This was one-half of the task 
which they had to complete before they could 
advance on Berlin. But in East Prussia thev had 



64 THE WAK OF THE NATIONS 

not only failed to win a foothold; they had been 
driven back into their own territory. While the 
Russians in the south were threatening a serious 
invasion of Hungary, Von Hinclenburg in the north 
launched a new offensive from Breslau and Posen as 
bases. The Russians rapidly retired until the Ger- 
mans were in sight of Warsaw, seven miles away. 
Here, during the middle of October, was fought the 
great battle of the Vistula. With a real victory 
almost in their grasp, the Germans in turn were 
forced back by the advance of a new Russian army 
on their flanks. Once again, during December, Jan- 
uary and February, the Germans advanced, but this 
time they were halted farther from Warsaw. In 
February the Russians again attempted to con- 
quer East Prussia, but, after the terrible ten-days' 
battle of the Mazurian Lakes they were compelled 
to retire to their own territory. 

40. The Russian Retreat. — The see-saw in cen- 
tral Poland and East Prussia at first had little 
effect in Galicia. During the Russian retirement 
in October from East Prussia there was a slacken- 
ing of the Russian advance in Galicia, but the 
mid-winter advance of the Germans into central 
Poland had little effect elsewhere. In April the 
invasion of Hungary seemed inevitable, and the Rus- 
sian army was preparing for a decisive advance. 
Just when the outlook for the Teutonic allies seemed 



THE RUSSIAN RETREAT 



65 



darkest, when it seemed as if nothing could stop the 
Eussians, then came a change of fortune. 

During April there raged a tremendous battle 
for the control of the Carpathian Mountains. 
Three of the principal passes were taken by the 




WINTER IN THE CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 
An Austrian supply train crossing the Uzsok Pass. 

Eussians, and only the Uzsok Pass was still held 
by the Austrians. About May 1 the tide began to 
turn, and by the end of May was running full. 
The Eussians were swept back by overwhelming 
numbers and a terrific artillery fire against which 
they were helpless. It was commonly reported 
that the Eussians were inadequately supplied with 




LEADERS OF THE ALLIES 

In the face of geographical separation, conflicting interests and diplomatic defeats, these 
leaders of the allied powers directed the greatest defensive campaigns ever fought. 




Photograph of Prin 



)old Copyright by Underwood & Underwood 
LEADERS OF THE TEUTONIC FORCES 



Thorough preparations, a definite plan of campaign and unity of action enabled these 
leaders of the Teutons to achieve successes that have amazed the world. 



68 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

ammunition. The Germans and Austrians retook 
Przemysl on June 13, and Lemberg on June 22, 
and two weeks later all of Galicia except a narrow 
strip in the southeast was again in the hands of 
the Teutonic allies. 

41. Conquest of Poland. — About July 16 the 
Germans began a new drive on Warsaw, on a 
vaster scale than ever before. The new drive was 
three-fold, from the north under Von Hindenburg, 
from the south under Yon Mackensen and from 
the west under Prince Leopold of Bavaria. The 
German advance from three sides, though bitterly 
opposed, threatened to envelop the Eussian armies 
and compelled them to evacuate Warsaw and the 
whole first line of defenses. The second line of per- 
manent defenses, to which they retired in good 
order, included the fortresses of Kovno, Grodno, 
Lublin and Brest-Litovsk, the strongest of them 
all. This second line was far stronger than the 
Warsaw line, but it held only three weeks. When 
Brest-Litovsk fell, on August 25, it made the further 
retreat of the Russians inevitable. On September 2 
the Eussians withdrew from Grodno, the last Polish 
fortress to remain in their hands. 

In spite of this continued retreat the morale 
of the Eussians remained excellent, and their 
forces intact. The credit for this masterly retreat, 
from May until September, from the Carpathians 



THE GEBMAN ADVANCE 69 

to the border of Eussia itself, belongs largely to 
Grand Duke Nicholas, second cousin of Czar 
Nicholas II. The Grand Duke proved himself as 
great a strategist as Jofrre and Yon Kluck. 

For reasons which are not clear, the Grand 




RUSSIANS AS PRISONERS OF WAR 

The fourteen-year-old boy in the foreground did not want to fight. But his father was a soldier 
at the front, and his mother fled on the approach of the Gecmans, Left alone, the boy had no 
choice but to starve or enlist. 

Duke was unexpectedly removed from the chief 
command on September 7, 1915, and transferred 
to the relatively unimportant post of commander 
against the Turks. Czar Nicholas assumed supreme 
command. This change was apparently the signal 
for a more determined resistance, but the Eussians 



70 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

witliin the next month lost most of the fortified 
points on their third line of defense, including 
Vilna. The German advance, however, had been 
unable to take Riga, and the battle-line early in 
November swept in a circle around Eiga toward 
Vilna and then southward to the Galician border. 
Already the change of season began to affect the 
campaign. The autumnal rains were creating great 
swamps and making progress difficult, and with 
the near approach of winter the line on the Dvina 
River seemed to hold. As the Aisne had been the 
battle-line in the west during the preceding winter, 
the Dvina now became in the east. 

At the southern end of the line, in Galicia, the 
Russians forced the Germans back a few miles, 
and retook several important towns. The center 
of interest, however, was shifted to the Balkans, 
where a combined German-Austrian army, led by 
Von Mackensen, was driving its way through 
Servia. To understand the significance of this 
drive, one of the major operations of the war, it is 
necessary to summarize the earlier campaigns in this 
region. 

42. The Austrian Invasion of Servia. — Though 
Servia 's refusal to yield to Austrian demands was 
the immediate cause of the war, the little nation 
ruled by King Peter played a secondary part 
during the first year of the war. When war was 



THE FIKST INVASION" OF SEEVIA 71 

declared, Austria immediately began hostilities by 
bombarding Belgrade, which lies on the Danube. 
Fortune favored first the Austrians and then the 
Servians. The Austrians invaded the northwest- 
ern corner of Servia in August, and here was 
fought the battle of the Jader, in the week follow- 
ing August 16. The Austrians were badly beaten, 
and compelled to retreat into their own territory. 
In September the Servians, aided by a force of 
Montenegrins, took the offensive, captured Semlin, 
across the Danube from Belgrade, and also invaded 
Bosnia. This invasion was a short one. A week 
later the Austrians in great force again attacked, 
and by the first week of December were prac- 
tically masters of Servia. At this time, unfortu- 
nately for the Austrians, the Bussian invasion of 
Galicia necessitated the withdrawal of large forces 
from the Servian line to meet the Bussians. Quick 
to seize their opportunity, the Servians broke the 
Austrian center, and drove the whole army in 
complete rout across the Danube. 

This Servian victory ended the campaign in 
Servia for many months, because the Bussians 
demanded Austria's attention and because Servia 
now suffered from an epidemic of typhus fever. 
Not only the army, but the women and children, 
everywhere, died by the scores. Largely through 
the efforts of the American Bed Cross service, the 



72 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

epidemic was checked, though many of the Amer- 
ican volunteer doctors and nurses lost their own 
lives. Not until the autumn of 1915, nearly a year 
after the end of the first Servian campaigns, did 
this nation again become the center of interest 
because of the relation of the allied attack against 
the Dardanelles to the general Balkan question. 

43. Turkey at War. — In September, 1914, two Ger- 
man warships, the Breslau and the Goeben, were in 
the Mediterranean, apparently trapped by a French 
fleet. In some manner they escaped, and later ap- 
peared at Constantinople, where they were reported 
sold to Turkey. They were given Turkish names, 
but their German crews remained in control. On 
October 29, the ships plunged Turkey into the war 
by bombarding Odessa and other Black Sea ports. 
Turkey's feeble explanation of this action was not 
satisfactory to Eussia, which declared war against 
Turkey on November 5. The Turks at first took 
the offensive, and attempted to invade Egypt and 
Russian Caucasia, but made little progress. The 
proclamation of a holy war, which had been feared 
by the Allies, and had been expected to arouse the 
Moslems in India and elsewhere, caused only a few 
small uprisings, which were promptly checked. 

44. At the Dardanelles. — As the winter was draw- 
ing to a close Turkey's share in the war took a 
new turn. British and colonial troops landed at 



BOMBABDMENT OF THE DABDANELLES 



73 



the head of the Persian Gulf and began a slow 
advance up the Euphrates valley toward Bagdad. 
A more spectacular event was the attempt of the 
Allies to force a passage through the Dardanelles 
to Constantinople. On February 19 there appeared 




THE ENTRANCE TO THE DARDANELLES 

Europe in the foreground; Asia across the straits. The forts on the hills were silenced during 
the first bombardment. 

before the western entrance to the straits the most 
powerful fleet of warships ever assembled. Beside 
it, the great Spanish Armada would have been a 
fleet of toys. The British and French warships 
bombarded the forts for two days, and a week later 
renewed the attack. During March the bombard- 
ment continued without much progress. The Allies, 



74 THE WAK OF THE NATIONS 

in fact, were compelled to recognize that the 
Dardanelles conld not be forced by a fleet alone. 

For several weeks the Turks were left in peace 
to repair the damages to their fortifications while 
the Allies prepared an expedition to land on the 
Gallipoli peninsula. On April 25 the fleet returned 
to the bombardment, and under cover of the great 
naval guns an allied army was landed on the tip of 
the peninsula. 

The bravery of the soldiers, who left the war- 
ships and transports in open boats and were con- 
tinuously exposed to the fire of machine guns, was 
one of the most stirring features of this momentous 
campaign. Constantinople, the ancient capital of 
the Eastern Empire, now held by the Turks, was 
attacked by Christians, who would drive the Mos- 
lems out of Europe. On the Asiatic side of the 
Dardanelles lie the plains of Troy, where Hector 
and Achilles and other heroes once fought. On 
these same fields, where every foot of ground is 
historic, the turbaned Turks and the helmeted 
Allies dug their trenches. 

Yet the heroism of the allied troops gained 
them little. Fifteen thousand laid down their lives 
in the first few days, in the landing operations. 
From the tip of the peninsula to the fort of Kilid 
Bahr is a distance of only 10 miles; beyond this 
point the peninsula is not heavily fortified. But 



AT THE DARDANELLES 



75 



four miles from the tip the Allies were halted, and 
the campaign settled down to a condition of siege 
like that on the Eiver Aisne. To break this dead- 
lock the New Zealand and Australian contingents 
made a landing at Suvla Bay, on the north 




CONSTANTINOPLE, TURKISH OR—? 

A panorama of the Sultan's capital. At the left, ; n the distance, is the famous Church or 
Mosque of Saint Sophia, completed by the Emperor Justinian in 558 A. D. 



side of the peninsula, in an attempt to outflank the 
Turkish army and cut its communications with 
Constantinople. But here, too, after the landing 
was won at bitter cost, the Allies were unable to 
make much progress, although at one time they 
almost cut the Turkish line of communication. The 



76 THE WAK OF THE NATIONS 

fleet was giving generous assistance, and British 
submarines succeeded in passing the mine fields and 
nets and reached the Sea of Marmora. Several 
Turkish transports were sunk almost in Constanti- 
nople itself. Yet the deadlock continued, and the 
Turks earned the praise even of their enemies for 
their courage. 

By the middle of September, 1915, about 100,000 
Turkish and allied soldiers had been killed and 
wounded in the battles on an area of 12 or 15 
square miles. But the loss of men was insignificant 
compared to the fact that the Turks seemed to be 
running short of ammunition. Rumania, in spite 
of Teutonic and Turk protests, prohibited the trans- 
portation of war supplies through its territory to 
Turkey, and the fall of Constantinople began to 
seem not impossible. To prevent such an ending 
to the Gallipoli campaign, the Teutonic powers 
began a great offensive movement through Servia 
to establish communication with Constantinople. 

45. The Drive Through Servia, — On September 25, 
while the Allies were gaining on the western battle 
front, the Austrians began to bombard Belgrade, 
the capital of Servia. Greece, Bulgaria, and 
Rumania, whose armies were now mobilized, all 
announced that mobilization was merely a pro- 
tective measure, but it was known that Bulgaria 
would fight for the side which bid the higher for its 



THE DRIVE THROUGH SERVIA 77 

assistance. Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria belonged 
to the German house of Coburg, and was wholly 
German in his sympathies. A further influence was 
his defeat in the second Balkan war, when Greece, 
Servia and Eumania, with the approval of Great 
Britain, despoiled Bulgaria of its conquests. It is 
certain, moreover, that Germany and Austria-Hun- 
gary promised Bulgaria an increase of territory 
after the war. Whatever the price, Bulgaria openly 
took its place against the Allies on October 5, 1915. 

Rumania and Greece continued to remain neu- 
tral, although the Allies offered to cede Cyprus to 
Greece as the price of support. At one time, indeed, 
it seemed as if the war party, which was led by 
Yenizelos, would carry Greece into the alliance 
against Germany and Austria. At the critical 
moment, however, King Constantine dismissed 
Yenizelos, then acting as premier, and again pro- 
claimed a friendly neutrality. The king's attitude 
was doubtless influenced by his wife, Queen Sophia, 
a sister of Emperor William II. Allied troops, how- 
ever, were allowed to land on Greek soil at Saloniki, 
whence they advanced to attack the Bulgarians. 

Bulgaria had meanwhile attacked Serbia, and had 
cut the single line of railway by which the Allies 
could advance from Saloniki to Nish, the temporary 
capital of Servia. In the north the Austro-German 
army commanded by Von Mackensen, advanced 



78 THE WAR OF THE NATIONS 

slowly southward, and during the last week in 
October effected a junction with the Bulgarians at 
several points, thus establishing direct communica- 
tion with Constantinople. 

46. The Italian Campaign. — At the very begin- 
ning of the war Italy had proclaimed its neutrality 
and had refused to join Germany and Austria-Hun- 
gary, on the ground that its agreement as member 
of the Triple Alliance did not require participation 
in an offensive war. Here, as in the Balkan states, 
there was a long diplomatic battle before war was 
declared. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed 
to cede some territory demanded by Italy as the 
price of neutrality. Italy regarded these offers as 
insufficient, and on May 24, 1915, finally declared 
war against Austria-Hungary. Italian troops began 
the invasion of Austrian territory, but for months 
made little progress. Trent and Trieste were the 
immediate objectives. In October, when Bulgaria 
entered the war, Italy declared war against that 
country and sent an expedition to Albania. On the 
whole Italy played an independent game, its object 
being the conquest of territory which Italian public 
opinion demanded. 

47. The War on the Sea. — During the first year of 
the war there were only a few minor naval actions. 
The great fleets were kept in hiding, and only small 
squadrons were sent out to annoy the enemy. A 



ON THE SEA 79 

German squadron bombarded Scarborough and the 
vicinity in December, 1914, bnt a second attempted 
raid was repulsed. In the South Pacific Ocean, a 
German squadron did much damage to shipping and 
sank three British warships off the coast of Chile, 
but was itself destroyed a month later (December) 
by a British fleet. The most spectacular feature of 
the war on the sea was the cruise of the Emden, a 
German cruiser of 3,000 tons, which sank about 25 
merchant ships and several small ships of war 
before it fell a victim to the larger Australian 
cruiser Sydney. 

One of the most startling aspects of the war was 
the extensive use of mines and submarines, espe- 
cially in the North Sea and the English Channel, and 
also in the Baltic Sea, the Adriatic Sea, and at the 
Dardanelles. The British government early an- 
nounced a blockade of Germany, with the frank 
intention of preventing any commerce between its 
enemy and neutral countries. The German reply 
was a submarine blockade of the British Isles, which 
resulted in the destruction of many merchant ships, 
belonging both to neutrals and belligerents. This 
policy culminated in the sinking of the great liner 
Lusitania, on May 7, 1915, off the southeast coast of 
Ireland (see Section 7). 

48. The Fall of Germany's Colonial Empire. — 
British naval supremacy made it impossible for 



80 THE WAK OF THE XATIOXS 

Germany to send aid to her scattered colonial pos- 
sessions, so that these, one by one, fell into the hands 
of the enemy in a single year. Practically the whole 
of the great colonial empire which Germany had 
built up in 30 years was seized by enemies. Ger- 
many's possessions in Africa and Asia included 
about 1,100,000 square miles, the most important 
colonies being German New Guinea, Samoa, Kiau- 





BEFORE 


- ADDED, 1915 
$11 


TOTAL 

$91 

$49 

$105 

$68 


1 




Italy 
Russia 


$80 


1 




$25 


$2,4 


1 






Austria-Hungary 
Germany 


$73 


$32 






$17 


$51 


France 


$ 166 


$1 10 


$276 


Great Britain 


$77 


$156 


$233- 



WAR'S COST IX DOLLARS 

The unshaded portion of each line shows the debt of the nation on August 1, 1914; 

the black portion is the addition to this debt made by August 1, 1915. 

Chau and German Southwest Africa. Tsing-Tau, 
the fortified portion of Kiau- Chau, was taken by the 
Japanese on November 7, 1914, after a siege of 
nearly ten weeks. At Great Britain's request Japan 
had demanded from Germany the surrender of 
Kiau-Chau. When this demand was ignored Japan 
declared war, August 23, 1914. The garrison sur- 
rendered only after three of the principal forts 
were taken by assault. 



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